



OTGH THE LAI 
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AGKSON &DAUGHE 



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Class _jl^il 
Book - J/^ 
Copyright}!^ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




HYBRID CARNATION. 

A. SCOTT, FEMALE PARENT. C. HYBRID. B. MCGOWAN. MALE PARENT. 



AGRICULTURE 

Through the Laboratory 
and School Garden. 



A MANUAL AND TEXT-BOOK OF ELE- 
MENTARY AGRICULTURE 
FOR SCHOOLS. 



C. R. JACKSON 

Introducer of Practical Agriculture and School Gardening into the State 
Normal School, Kirks-ville, Alo. 

MRS. L. S. DAUGHERTY 

Assistant in Zoology, State Normal School, Kirks-ville, AIo. 



Give men their gold, and knaves their power, 
Let fortune's bubbles rise and fall, 

Who plows a field, or trains a flower, 
Or plants a tree is more than all; 

For he who blesses, most is blessed. 

And God and man will own his worth 

Who seeks to leave as his bequest 
An added beauty to the earth." 



NEW YORK 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
1908 



fuBHAK'Y of OONdRES? 
Iwu iiODies ne(;eiv«<< 

SEP 4 )a08 

OLaS» CX XAC. Nu. 

■2_- I S i> "1 •% 
OOPY a. 






Copyright, 1905, iqo8 

By 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY. 



INTRODUCTION. 



From the growth and drift of public sentiment 
it is evident that education in Agriculture will 
soon be offered in all good elementary schools 
of our country. This, from the nature of the 
case, seems unavoidable, because such instruc- 
tion is essential both for utility and for culture. 
It is an essential utility, because it is the only 
means of furnishing adequate conceptions of 
the one fundamental occupation of mankind 
upon which all other occupations depend. 

For the masses it is an essential basis of true 
culture and refinement, as illustrated in its ear- 
liest fruitage, which is the adornment of homes 
through improved lawns, shade-trees, walks, 
driveways, gardens, flowers, etc., thereby open- 
ing the avenues to consciousness and revealing 
in the most pleasing way the beauty world all 
around us. 

This volume is unique. It is not the product 
of its authors' imaginations. No one designed 
it to exploit a theory or a person. It is an out- 
line of work done — done by ordinary people 
under ordinary conditions. 

The Agricultural Laboratory and the School 
Garden of the Kirksville Normal School have 



yi INTRODUCTION. 

grown from very small beginnings. They are 
now the objects of keen interest in many parts 
of the United States. Their purpose at all 
times has been to prepare teachers to give prac- 
tical and definite agricultural instruction in 
public schools of all kinds. 

John R. Kirk. 



PREFACE. 

The preparation of this book was undertaken, 
primarily, that the classes in Agriculture of the 
State Normal School of Kirksville, Missouri, 
miofht have in one book the directions for all 
laboratory experiments and exercises, and such 
information as would enable them to under- 
stand the results of these experiments. 

We believe that the book will meet the needs 
of most schools where Agriculture is taught or 
should be taught. 

It has been deemed necessary to embody in 
the text such facts and principles of Geology 
and Botany as are absolutely essential to the 
understanding of agricultural principles and 
processes. 

The work is intended to cover one year's 
time, but any part of it may be omitted if 
the necessary materials cannot be obtained. 
The time to be spent upon each phase of the 
work must be determined by the class, the 
materials accessible, and the teacher. 

It is neither pedagogical nor scientific to tell 
a student what he can find out for himself. It 
takes away both the incentive and the necessity 
for experimental work to foretell the result. 



Viii PREFACE. 

Our aim has been to present actual experimental 
work in every phase of the subject possible, and 
to state the directions for such work so that the 
student can perform it independently of the 
teacher, and to state them in such a way that 
the results will not be suggested by these direc- 
tions. One must perform the experiment to 
ascertain the result. 

Any energetic teacher can, by carefully going 
over the work in advance, working out the ex- 
periments himself and reading the references, be 
able to do creditable class work if he is willing 
to " dig," but it is useless for any one else to 
undertake to be an agriculturist or to teach 
agriculture. 

Every available source has been drawn upon 
for the material used in this book, but the plan 
of presenting it is original, as well as most of 
the experiments and exercises, and many practi- 
cal ideas gained from experience in teaching. 

We wish to express our grateful appreciation 
to all those who have so kindly helped us by 
reviewing the manuscript or by loaning us illus- 
trations. 

The following persons from the United States 
Department of Agriculture at Washington have 
been very helpful: The manuscript was examined 
by B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division of 
Plant Industry; W. J. Spillman, Agrostologist ; 
A. F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist ; 



PREFACE. ix 

and M. B. Waite, Assistant Pathologist. The 
chapters on " Propagation," " Improvement," 
and " Pruning " were read by L. C. Corbett, 
Horticulturist, and the one on *' Enemies of 
Plants " by the Entomologist, Mr. Wilcox. 
" Ornamentation of School and Home 
Grounds" was read by Mr. Crosby. The chap- 
ter on " Enemies of Plants " was also read by 
H. Garman, State Entomologist of Kentucky. 
The first half of the book was examined also by 
Professor Mumford, Acting Director of Missouri 
Experiment Station, and by W. T. Carrington, 
State Superintendent of Schools. The second 
half was examined by J. C. Whitten, Horticul- 
turist, Missouri Experiment Station. The first 
chapter was criticised by C. F. Marbut, Assist- 
ant Professor of Geology, University of Missouri. 

The second half of the manuscript was ex- 
amined by Dr. L. S. Daugherty, of the State 
Normal School, Kirksville, Missouri. The entire 
manuscript was submitted to H. J. Waters, Su- 
perintendent of Agriculture, World's Fair, St. 
Louis, Missouri. The chapter on Milk and Its 
Care was written by C. H. Eckels, of the Mis- 
souri State University. 

We are indebted to the following persons 
and Experiment Stations for illustrations : Ex- 
periment Stations of Minnesota, West Virginia, 
Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Kansas, Mis- 
souri, Ithaca, New York, New Jersey, Texas, 



X PREFACE. 

and that of Hampton Institute (Va.) ; to the 
United States Department of Agriculture ; the 
United States Geological Survey ; Ladies Home 
Jotirnal ; OrdiUgit Judd Co.; Waugh's "Land- 
scape Gardening" ; D. C. Heath & Co. ; Leg- 
gett & Brother; The Deming Co., and others 
mentioned with the figures. 

The Authors. 

KiRKSVILLE, Mo., 1903. 

To the earlier edition has been added a chap- 
ter on " Farm Animals" by E. A. Trowbridge, 
of the Missouri Experiment Station. Several 
figures have been inserted and additional text 
has been written on the School Garden. A 
number of changes and additions have been 
made in other chapters. The whole book has 
been gone over critically and parts which have 
proved impracticable or doubtful have been 
omitted. 

The Authors, 

July ist, 1908. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER. PAGE. 

I. Nature and Formation of Soils .... 3 
II. Classification and Physical Properties 

OF Soils •. • • 43 

III. Soil Moisture and Preparation of the 

Soil 59 

I\'. The Soil as Related to Plants .... ']'/ 

\ . Leguminous Plants 109 

W. Principles of Feeding 131 

VII. Rotation of Crops i53 

VIII. Milk and Its Care 163 

IX. Propagation of Plants 201 

X. Improvement OF Plants 245 

XI. Pruning of Plants 271 

XII. Enemies of Plants 289 

XIII. Ornamentation of School and Home 

Grounds 349 

XIV. Farm Animals 393 

General References : 

Weeds 437 

Forest Trees of America 437 

Agricultural Publications : 

Publications of United States Department of 

Agriculture 438 

Publications of State Experiment Stations . 438 

Agricultural Experiment Stations 439 

Publishing Houses 441 

Glossary 442 

Index 445 

xi 



ILLUSTRATIONS, 



PAGE. 

Red and White Carnations with Hybrid Produced by 

Crossing Frontispiece. 

Wind-bk)wn Sand-drifts 8 

Planting Beach Grass to Hold the Sand at Cape Cod, Mass. 8 

Apparatus for Experiment i lo 

Deposition of Material Upon Slacking of Stream ... i6 

Shales "Creeping" Under the Action of Frost .... 20 

Formation of Glaciers 21 

Action of Glacier Drifts 23 

Mechanical Action of Rain 26 

Roots of Forest Trees Opening a Rocky Subsoil ... 29 

Vegetation Protecting the Soil 30 

How the Farm is Retained 37 

View of an Irrigating Ditch When Made 39 

View of the Same Ditch Ten Years Later 39 

Fifth Grade Children Collecting Different Kinds of Soil 47 

Temperature Curves of a Humous St)il 50 

Apparatus for Experiment 5 5^ 

Apparatus for Experiment 6 53 

Apparatus for Experiment 7 54 

Apparatus for Experiment 9 61 

Apparatus for Experiment 13 67 

A Good Plow 69 

A Plank Harrow 70 

A Rolling Cutter Harrow /O 

A Spring-toothed Harrow 71 

A Coulter-toothed Harrow /i 

To Show the Effect of Deep and Shallow Plowing . . 73 

Showing Effect of Nitrate 80 

Tubercles on Velvet Bean Produced by Inoculation . . 83 

A Covered Barn-yard , . . . . 103 

Comparison of Vetch Plants iii 

Roots of Yellow Soy-bean 112 

Alfalfa Plant "5 

The Cow-pea 124 

The Soy-bean 125 

xii 



ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii 

PAGE. 

Round Silo, Missouri Agricultural College Farm . . . 149 

Wheat Grown After Cow-peas 155 

Pure and Impure Milk Highly Magnified 165 

Pasteurizing Apparatus 167 

A Guernsey Cow — Charmante of the Gron 14442 . . . 172 

A Jersey Cow — Imp. Jersey Venture 122508 172 

An Ayrshire Cow — Viola Drummond 174 

A Holstein Cow . , 174 

Glassware for Babcock Tester 178 

Hand-power Babcock Tester 179 

Cooley Creamer . 185 

A Modern Hand-power Cream Separator 187 

Barrel Churn 191 

Farm Dairy Butter-worker 195 

Students Molding and Wrapping Butter 197 

Catalpa Tree 203 

Seedlings of Indian Corn 210 

Red Fir (elevation, 9,000 feet) 213 

Red Fir (elevation, 4,700 feet) 213 

Rooted Tips of a Seedling Raspberry Cane 218 

Leaf Cutting— Whole Leaf 219 

Leaf Cutting — Part of Leaf 221 

Leaf Cutting of Saiisez'icria scylanica 221 

Tip Cutting of a Chrysanthemum 222 

Cutting of Heliotrope 222 

Cutting of Oleander Rooting in Water 223 

Stem Cutting of Umbrella-plant Rooting in Water . . . 223 

Removing a Plant from a Pot 224 

The Plant Removed from the Pot 224 

Children Potting Plants , , 226 

Twig of White Elm , , 227 

Position of Hard-wood Cutting in Soil 228 

Rooted Grape Cutting 228 

Grape Cutting 229 

Cutting of Blackberry Root 229 

The Way to Remove a Bud 230 

One-year-old Peach Seedlings 231 

Stages in Budding 232 

One-year-old Piece-root Graft 23s 

Steps in Root-grafting 234 

Dormant Apple Twig 235 



xiv ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE. 

Steps ill Stem-grafting 236 

Mound Layering 239 

Variation in Grains of Corn 246 

Improvement of Corn by Selection 251 

Plant Rosettes 255 

Potato Plant 257 

Modification of Cosmos by Pruning 258 

The Parts of a Flower 262 

Orange Bud and Blossoms 263 

Orange Flower 264 

Nearly Mature Hybrid Orange 264 

Cosmos Flowers 266 

Diagram Showing Method of Selecting and Improving Seed 267 
Diagrammatic Cross-Section of a Basswood Stem Two 

Years Old 273 

Improper and Proper Pruning 2"]}, 

Grass Growing in Cavity — Result of Improper Pruning . 275 

Same Tree After Cavity Has Been Repaired 275 

The Way to Remove a Large Limb 276 

Where to Cut the New Growth 277 

Apple-tree Headed Low 280 

Trees Growing Close Together for Timber 281 

Norway Maple 283 

Net for Collecting Insects 291 

Cyanide Bottle 292 

Breeding-jar for Rearing Insects 292 

Collecting Insects 294 

A Bucket Spray 304 

The Bordeaux Nozzle 305 

Hand Spray . 305 

Meadow-lark 308 

House Wren 309 

Four Common Seed-eating Birds 311 

Four Common Weeds, the Seeds of which are Eaten by Birds 313 

Weed Seeds Commonly Eaten by Birds 314 

"Look out!" 316 

Anatis lypunctata. Say 318 

Ladybug and Larvae Preying Upon Scale Insects Infest- 
ing a Pear 319 

Epilachna corrupta 319 

Chrysopa Species 320 



ILLUSTRATIONS. xv 

PAGE. 

Ichucumon-tly Depositing an Egg within Cocoon . . . 321 

Ants Milking Plant-lice 3^5 

American Tent-caterpillar 3-6 

Baltimore Oriole Attacking the Nest of the American 

Tent-caterpillar 2>^7 

Forest Tent-cocoons in Apple Leaves 3-S 

Forest Tent-caterpillars Feeding Upon Elm Leaves . . 329 

Codling-moth 330 

Round-headed Apple-borer 2>2>Z 

Sapcrda Candida, Fab 334 

Brown Rot 337 

Black Rot 338 

Grapes from Vineyard Affected with Black Rot .... 339 

An Apple Attacked by Bitter-rot Fungus 340 

Apple Scab 34i 

Agricultural Class, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. 348 

A Country School-yard — Bare and Unattractive .... 350 

The Same School-yard Improved by Plantings of Shrubbery 350 

Fifth Grade Children Planting Their Garden 354 

Fourth Grade Children Caring for the Lawn Around the 

School Garden 355 

School Gardening — Agricultural Students 358 

Roman Hyacinths ' . 360 

Chinese Sacred Lily 361 

Geometrical Designs 365 

Natural Style 369 

Trees Showing Kinds of Te.xture 371 

American Elm 374 

Ash 374 

A Cool and Inviting Retreat 376 

Ferns and Phlox 377 

Mass of Shrubbery 378 

Dogwood in Flower 381 

Pansies 383 

Shall the Children Pluck Flowers or Rattle Tin Cans in 

• the Back Yard? 384 

Back-yard Screen 385 

A Bouquet of Sweet Peas 386 

A Small Lake, with Well-selected Plantings 388 

"Artist Montrose" 405 

Hackney Stallion "Sir Humphrey" 408 



xvi ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE. 

Percheron Stallion "Pink" 411 

Pure-bred Aberdeen Angus Steer "Andy" 414 

"University Daizie" 417 

Red-polled Bull "Bounce" 420 

Southdown Wether 421 

Rambouillet Ram 422 

Champion Poland China Barrow 427 

Large Yorkshire Boar, "Holywell Royalty II." .... 429 

Single-comb White Leghorn Cock 433 

Barred Plymouth Rock Hen 433 

Buff Cochin Cock 434 

Light Brahmas 434 



AGRICULTURE 

THROUGH THE LABORATORY 
AND SCHOOL GARDEN. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER I. 

NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 

^.—SOURCES OF ENERGY. 
I. The Earth's Energy. 
II. The Sun's Energy. 

i5.— FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION. 

I. The Atmosphere. 

*i. It Rfgulates the Temperature. 

2. Movements of the Atmosphere. 

3. Chemical Action. Experiment i. 

4. Alternations of Heat and Cold. 

II. Water. 

1. Chemical action. 

2. Mechanical Action. Disintegrating., transporting, 

assorting. Experiment 2. 
(i) Rivers. Experiment 3. 

(2) Underground Streams. 

(3) Landslides. 

(4) Lakes. 

(5) The Ocean. 

(6) Frost. 



2 AGRICULTURE. 

(7) Ice. 

(8) Snowslides. 

(9) Glaciers. 
(10) Icebergs. 

3. Field Exercise No. i. 

III. Organic Life. 

1. Plant Life. 

(i) Mechanical or Physical Effects 

(2) Chemical Effects. 

(3) Vegetable Accumulations. 

2. Animal Life. 

(i) Disintegration. 

(2) Animal Accumulations. 

Calcareous Deposits. 

Siliceous Deposits. 

Phosphatic Deposits. 

3. Environmental Changes. 

4. Field Exercise No. 2. 



CHAPTER I. 

NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 

Soil is derived, primarily, from rock * in the 
broadest sense of the term. The cycle of tear- 
ing down in one place and building up in an- 
other has been constantly going on for ages, 
and is still going on to-day. It is to this cycle 
of changes, discussed in the following pages, 
that we owe the presence of the loose surface 
material of the earth (some places a few hun- 
dred feet in depth, and in some places entirely 
wanting) which makes it possible for plants and 
animals to live, and which loose material forms 
the basis of all soil. 

y^.— SOURCES OF ENERGY. 

The matter which constitutes the earth and 
atmosphere, though it cannot be destroyed, is 
constantly changing its form, under the action 
of existing forces. The soiu^ces of all these 
forces, or of our supply of energy, are the earth 
and the sun. 

I. The Earth's Energy. 

The earth's energy is from within, and some 
of its manifestations are the upheavals and dis- 
ruptions of the crust, and, greatest of all, the 

* " Any substance constituting a portion of the earth's crust 
... is called a rock." — Leconte's Conupeitd of Geology, p. 17S. 

3 



4 AGRICULTURE. 

force of gravity, without which nothing could 
remain upon the surface of the earth, owing to 
the centrifugal force caused by the rotation of 
the earth. 

Other forms of energy are the molecular!^ 
forces of cohesion^ and adhesion,;^ and the 
atomic force of chemical affinity, all of which 
exist within the substances themselves, and act 
at insensible distances. 

II. The Sun's Energy. 

The great source from which we derive, either 
directly or indirectly, most of our energy is the 
sun. " The circulation of winds and waters, 
the changes of temperature, and the activities 
of living beings all depend upon the sun's 
energy," * without which there could be upon 
the surface of the earth no motion and no life. 

The sun's energy comes to us, it is believed, 
by means of waves in the ether of space. Some 
of these waves produce the various colors, or are 
what we might call light waves ; others are not 
perceptible to the human eye, but are heat 
waves ; still others are especially productive of 
chemical changes, as is manifested in photog- 
raphy. 

When the sunshine falls upon the soil a por- 
tion of it is absorbed, and the molecular motion 



+ Terms thus marked (double dagger) throughout the book are 
found in the Glossary. 
* Scott's Geology, p. 29. 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 5 

within the soil is increased, producing a certain 
amount of heat. This heat, when transmitted 
to the air, causes it to expand and thus become 
lighter, when the cooler and heavier air rushes 
in from the sides, forces it upward, and wind re- 
sults ; if transmitted to the water, the increase 
of the molecular motion of the water overcomes 
the force of cohesion, and evaporation ensues. 

As the vapor rises it gradually becomes cooled 
and condensed, and clouds composed of minute 
particles of water* are formed; these minute 
particles of water, after further cooling and 
condensing, are united by cohesion into drops, 
and are drawn back to the earth by the force 
of gravity, in the form of rain, snow, or hail. 
These few examples may serve to show how the 
sun's energy is transformed into a multitude of 
activities. 

^.—FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION. 
I. The Atmosphere. 

I. It Regulates the Tempei'atMre. — On winter 
nights the lower layer of air — especially if laden 
with dust and moisture — acts as a blanket in 
checking radiation of heat from the earth's 
surface. But, in the intense heat of summer, 
this lower layer of air would, through radiation 



* " Clouds formed at temperature above 32° consist of minute 
spherical drops of water 1-4000 to i-iooo of an inch in diameter; 
those formed below 32° consist of minute ice spicules which in- 
crease in size and become snow." — YiSi.vK's,' Meteorology,-^^. 159, 160. 



6 AGRICULTURE. 

of heat from the earth, become unbearable for 
all living beings were it not for its currents, 
caused by the expansion of the heated air which 
renders it lighter and causes it to rise, while the 
cooler air above, being heavier, descends by the 
force of gravity."^' 

2. Movements of the Atmosphere. — It is to 
these movements — due, primarily, to the coun- 
teraction of the sun's energy by the force of 
gravity — that we owe the formation of clouds 
and the condensation of their moisture ; the dis- 
tribution of gases to act upon the rock surface, 
or to be consumed by living beings; the circu- 
lation of air in the soil, so essential to plant life; 
the transportation of plant food and of seeds ; 
and the maintenance of the relative composition 
of the whole atmosphere. It is through these 
movements that the air travels to the sea and 
back again, bringing moisture for the thirsty 
life. 

The winds play an important part in the for- 
mation of soil : {a) in the disintegration of 
rocks, by pelting them with sand or rain, thus 
mechanically wearing them away by friction ; 
(^) by keeping them bare, so that they are ex- 
posed to other atmospheric forces ; (^) by stir- 



* " Professor Langley, after a long and careful experiment 
at the base and summit of Mount Whitney, California, concludes 
that had our earth no atmosphere its surface temperature under 
the equator at noon would be 328° F." — The Soil, King, p. 13. 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 7 

ring up the ocean into waves and billows, which 
beat upon the rocks, carrying with them sand 
and pebbles, which grind each other into powder. 

On the sandy beach of the ocean and of the 
great lakes, and in the great sandy plains, or 
wherever the sand is loose and unprotected by 
vegetation, the wind becomes a potent factor 
(Figs. 1-2). Along the shore of Lake Michigan 
sand-dunes are destroying forests^ and often 
when the forests have been cut off, fertile farms 
are covered by these great accumulations of 
wind-blown sand. In conjunction with sand, 
the wind builds or destroys islands. The loess 
in China is a deposit of wind-blown soil. 

In the desert of Sahara and in our great 
western plains great blinding storms of dust 
and sand occur. The sand, too heavy to be lifted 
more than a few feet high, is rolled along and 
drifted in wave-like mounds, which change their 
shape and position with the changes in the direc- 
tion of the wind — just as the snow-drifts are 
formed in waves— and the particles are sucked 
up into the whirling air, and redeposited in a 
new place by the force of gravity as the motion 
subsides. One of our "blizzards" is a good il- 
lustration of a sand-storm, only the substance 
transported by the wind is snow instead of dust 
and sand. 

3. Che7nical Action. — Another phase of atmos- 
pheric work is that of chemical action. Dry air 




FIG. I. — WIND-BLOWN SAND-DRIFTS. 




FIG. 2. — PLANTING BEACH GRASS TO HOLD THE SAND AT 
CAPE COD, MASS. 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 9 

has little chemical effect, but moist air is very 
active. The oxygen, which is now known to 
combine with nearly every other element, seeks 
to unite with the minerals of the exposed rocks.* 
Iron, which in some form is contained by most 
rocks, unites readily with oxygen in the presence 
of moisture, forming rust, which stains, softens, 
and ultimately causes the disintegration of the 
rock. 

Carbon dioxide (COj), though present in a 
comparatively small quantity, is a powerful 
agent both in moist air and in rain-water. It 
acts upon the rocks, especially upon limestone, 
causing them to crumble away or to be entirely 
dissolved. 

Experiment i. — Before beginning to perform any experi- 
ment in this book, read over the entire directions for it, get 
necessary apparatus ready, and know what you are going to 
do a fid 7i>hy you are going to do it. Record your observations 
at the tifne they are made, not after leaving the laboratory. 

Throughout this book, wherever the word " ?tote " is 
used, it means to observe and record your observations or 
expla?iatio?is. 

{a) Break pieces of limestone, marble, or clam-shells 
into tiny bits, and place a small quantity in a wide- 
mouthed bottle. 

{b) Pour in small successive portions of dilute hydro- 
chloric acid (HCI). Note what takes place as the acid 
comes in contact with the stones or shells. Both the 
hydrochloric acid and the calcium carbonate of the 
stones or shells are decomposed, and calcium chloride 



* Gilbert and Brigham, Physical Geography, p. 78. 



10 



AGRICULTURE. 



(CaCl,), water (H^O),and the gas carbon dioxide (COJ 
are formed. 

(c) Now pass some of this gas, or carbon dioxide, from 
the bottle into the solution of clear lime-water (Fig. 3). 

(d) To prepare lime-water, dissolve common lime in 
pure water, let stand until clear, and carefully pour off 
the liquid, or pass it through a filter-paper. J What 
takes place when the carbon dioxide passes into the 
lime water? Allow the gas to continue to pass, and 
note the result. 

(e) Boil the liquid, and again note result. 

(/) Write up this experiment, stating the materials 
used, observations made, and what the experiment 
teaches, together with any further remarks or conclu- 
sions you may make concerning each step. 

When the carbon dioxide was first passed into 
the lime-water, a precipitate of calcium carbon- 
ate (CaCOj), or limestone, 
was formed. 

It continued to pass 
until there was no more 
calcium hydroxide, or lime- 
water, Ca(OH)2, to com- 
bine with it, when the 
carbon dioxide united with 
the water (H^O) to form 
carbonic acid (H2CO3). 
This acid at once acted 
upon the precipitate of calcium carbonate, form- 
ing a soluble bicarbonate of calcium, HjCa 
(COj)^, which is dissolved, and the liquid be- 
comes clear. The boiling drives out part of 




FIG. 3. — APPARATUS FOR 
EXPERIMENT I. 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. H 

the carbon dioxide, and the calcium carbonate 
is again precipitated. 

Other substances of the air which bear impor- 
tant relations to agriculture are nitrogfen and its 
compounds, ammonia, nitrous and nitric acids, 
and ozone. 

4. Alternations of Heat and Cold. — In dry, 
hot countries, rocks become excessively heated 
during the day and rapidly cooled at night. As 
the outer layer cools it contracts upon the hot 
and expanded interior, which tends to produce 
snapping and crumbling of the brittle min- 
erals. 

Thus we see the work of the atmosphere is 
constant ; it is universal ; it is not, however, 
uniform.''^ Both the rapidity and the extent of 
disintegration are dependent upon the differ- 
ences of climate in various latitudes and alti- 
tudes, the differences in the rock substances 
themselves, the differences of seasons and of 
the amount of precipitation, and upon the pres- 
ence or lack of protection from vegetation or 
soil. 



* The composition of the air varies greatly in different locali- 
ties, or under different conditions in the same localities; but, 
under ordinary conditions, its constituents in a given volume are, 
approximately: oxygen, 20.6 per cent.; nitrogen, 77.18 per cent. ; 
water vapor, 1.4 per cent.; carbon dioxide, .04 per cent. ; argon, 
.78 per cent. The water vapor and carbon dioxide are the most 
variable. And there is present a variable quantity of ammonia, 
nitrous and nitric acids — a very small fraction of i per cent, alto- 
gether. 



12 AGRICULTURE. 

II. Water. 

Among the factors of soil formation none is 
greater than that of water in its various phases 
— as, rain, rill, river, lake, and sea ; frost, ice, 
avalanche, and glacier. 

I. Chemical Action. — In many of its forms 
water exerts a violent and stupendous force, 
but there is a silent and subtle force whose re- 
sults are often overlooked. It is the great sol- 
vent power of water. It absorbs both oxygen 
and carbon dioxide from the air, and these give 
it great chemical power in dissolving, or de- 
composing, rock substances."^* The simplest 
effects are the uniting of oxygen and of water 
with the minerals composing the rocks. But 
as the rain sinks into the ground it is provided 
with new weapons through the absorption of 
the humic acids and, possibly, of alkaline sub- 
stances. For this reason, many rocks disinte- 
grate more rapidly under ground than they do 
when exposed to the atmosphere. 

Calcium carbonate, or limestone, is the sub- 
stance dissolved or decomposed in the greatest 
quantity ; but magnesium carbonate (MgCOj), 
organic matter, silica (SiO^), and many other 
substances are held in solution by clear river 
water. (See " Field Exercise No. i," Part 2.) 



* " Perfectly pure water has very little effect, but perfectly 
pure water does not exist in nature." — Scott's Geology. 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 13 

The amount of these dissolved materials — 
though far less than that produced by mechan- 
ical action — is astonishing. That carried into 
the Gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi River an- 
nually reaches over 112,000,000 tons — -not all 
derived from the river-bed, but taken up by the 
water from the time it falls in rain till it reaches 
the sea, whether it flows through the river and 
its branches, or whether it comes from springs 
or other underground sources. 

2. Mechanical Action. — The mechanical action 
of water is threefold, (i) It disintegrates. (2) 
It transports. (3) It assorts. 

The mechanical action of rain is due to the 
friction produced by the drops in striking the 
rocks, and by the abrasion of solid particles as 
they are carried to lower levels. It forms into 
little rills and gullies, washing out and carrying 
with it as it goes all the loose material which it 
can hold in suspension (Fig. 8). The amount 
thus obtained depends partly upon the solubil- 
ity of the rock over which it flows (though 
even a granite would be slightly dissolved by 
ordinary rain-water), and partly upon the vio- 
lence of the precipitation, and the volume and 
velocity of the stream. 

The velocity is affected by several influences, 
but the greatest of them is the constant, never- 
failing action of gravity. Hence, the steeper 
the descent the greater the velocity. The 



14 AGRICULTURE. 

power is supplied by the volume and velocity of 
the stream, but the work of abrasion is per- 
formed, for the most part, by the sand, pebbles, 
and rock fragments as they are rolled along. 
They cut down into the river-bed, wearing it 
deeper; they polish each other into rounded or 
flattened shapes, or grind each other into pow- 
der in their mad rush to the sea. 

The transpo7^ting power of running water 
varies as the sixth power of its velocity, so that 
if its velocity be doubled it can carry sixty-four 
times as much solid matter as before. Thus it 
is that a slight increase in the velocity will 
greatly increase the load of a stream if the ma- 
terials are obtainable, while the slightest de- 
crease in the velocity will cause a part of the 
load to be deposited. These river deposits are 
commonly in sheets or bars, but when the river 
suddenly enters a plain at the foot of a steep 
slope an alluvial fan is formed by the deposition 
of the sediment. 

According to the calculations of the United 
States government made many years ago, the 
Mississippi River transports to the gulf every 
year enough solid substance to make a column 
one mile square and 268 feet high — 200,000,000 
tons. 

The student can find no better example of 
the carrying power of water than that of the 
roadside rills and gullies after a heavy rain. 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 15 

Experiment 2. — (a) Weigh a glass fruit jar, and col- 
lect in it the clouded or muddy water — from a gullj' or 
stream, after a rain — and allow it to stand until clear. 

{/?) Weigh again; then carefully pour off the water, 
and weigh the sediment remaining in the jar. 

(c) Calculate the per cent, of sediment. ~ 

(i) Rivers. — When rivers overflow their 
banks the water loses its velocity, and a layer 
of sediment is deposited on either side of the 
stream. In the great rivers these flood-plains 
are broad fertile tracts of land very valuable for 
agriculture. Those of the Mississippi are many 
miles in width, but have to be protected by 
levees from the overflowing of the river. 

Where the river empties into the quiet waters 
of a lake or sea the velocity is checked and the 
stream deposits its load. As the stream slack- 
ens the heavier particles are dropped first, and 
so on, until in the quiet waters only the finest 
silt is carried. Hence it is that, on lake or sea- 
shore, we find the coarser materials thrown down 
first, and farther out the finer sands (Fig. 4). 
There is usually a pause after such deposition 
is made until a fresh supply of sediment is ob- 
tained. This allows the surface to assume a 
somewhat different arrangement. This surface 
forms the plane of contact for the next layer, 
and is called the "stratification plane." 

Experiment 3. — The assorting power of water may be 
illustrated by (a) placing a mixture of rock material of 



IG 



AGRICULTURE. 



various sizes — pebbles, sand, clay, and vegetable mould- 
in a candy-jar, and nearly filling the jar with water. 

(d) Now thoroughly stir the mixture, and allow it to 
stand until the water clarifies. 

(c) Observe the arrangement of the sediment. Where 
are the largest pebbles found ? Where the finest clay ? 

Of course the change here will be gradual, and 




FIG. 4 — DEPOSITION OF MATERIAL UPON SLACKING OF STREAM 

the layers will not be so distinct, as there was 
no time for the formation of the stratification^ 
plane between the depositions of different kinds 
of sediment. 

(2) Underground Streams. — Part of the 
water after a rain sinks into the ground. The 
natural breaks in the rock serve as channels 
which it may enlarge if the rock be soluble. 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 17 

These underground streams perform various 
kinds of work, such as weakening rocks, dissolv- 
ing minerals, carving channels, rising in springs 
or in artesian wells, bringfing" mineral matter to 
the surface, and forming caves and making 
peculiar deposits in them. 

(3) Landslides are caused by the undermin- 
ing of masses of rock and soil by water, which 
produces a slippery surface of bed-rock, and 
makes it easy for gravity to move an enormous 
quantity of soil or rock down the declivity. 

(4) Lakes differ from oceans in being (usu- 
ally) above the sea-level; in size; and in the 
freshness of their waters, provided they have an 
outlet. Their chief movements are zuaves pro- 
duced by ivi'ids. These waves often erode the 
shore. They carry with them and distribute 
over the bottom of the lake the sediment 
brought by the rivers, thus making stratified 
rock. 

(5) The ocean, with its waves, tides, and cur- 
rents, which constantly beat upon the shore, 
plays an important role in this great drama. As 
we have seen, the material transported by the 
rivers may form deltas and bars, or be wide.y 
distributed, according to the strength of the 
tides and the power of the currents along the 
shore. 

More than one-half of the rocks have been 
laid down in the sea and then raised above it. 



]8 AGRICULTURE. 

These deposits were not made out in the open 
sea, but near the shore in shallow w?.ter. Their 
thickness is accounted for by the theory that 
the ocean bottom was sinking g-radually, and 
fresh deposits were made above the preceding 
ones. 

In the open sea are found the deposits of 
very fine particles carried out by the rivers — on 
the continental slopes from the one hundred 
fathom line to the oceanic abysses — and they 
are known under the indefinite term of "mud." 
There are also volcanic deposits and great accu- 
mulations of organic remains. Every animal in 
the sea which has a shell or hard skeleton helps 
to make these deposits, but by far the greater 
part of them is made up of the shells of minute 
organisms''^ which live near the surface. The 
diatom ooze is composed of the siliceous re- 
mains of microscopic plants. 

(6) Frost. — Frozen water has done a great 
share of the work in this process of mantling 
the earth with loose material. Some rocks are 
more porous than others, though those appar- 
ently solid will, upon examination, be found to 
be crossed by joints which divide them into 
blocks. These are filled with minute crevices 
and pores, through which the water percolates 
even to the very center. Water, upon passing 



* Jordan and Kellogg's Animal Life, p. 18. Scott's Geology, 
pp. 176-180. 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 19 

into a solid state, expands about one-eleventh of 
its original bulk. This expansion exerts an ir- 
resistible force, as is seen in the bursting of 
iron pipes, the cracking of the rocks into blocks, 
or shattering them into fragments, thus increas- 
ing their exposed surfaces many-fold, and ex- 
posing them to the action of other forces. 

Exercise i. — Let the student calculate the area of 
the exposed surface of a cubic foot of rock (a) befor^ 
and (d) after it has been broken up into cubic inches** 
(c) Compare a and l>. : 

Another effect of the freezing of rock is to 
cause the fragments to " rise slightly at right 
angles to the inclined surface, and each thawing 
produces the reverse movement " * under the 
influence of gravity. Consequently, they slowly 
"creep" down the declivity (Fig. 5). '4 

(7) Ice. — The ice of a stream expands with 
great force, pushing against the bank. It holds 
in its mighty grasp all loose stones, boulders, 
and trees along the banks, and when it breaks 
up transports them to great distances. 

If the student has an opportunity, let him 
watch the breaking up the ice in a river, or even 
in a smaller stream, and see with what wonder- 
ful force the great blocks of ice with their bur- 
dens are crushing each other to pieces in the 
fury of a spring torrent. Iron bridges are often 
swept away by the enormous pressure. 

* Scott's Geology, p. 82. 



20 



AGRICULTURE. 



(8) Snowslides. — On the mountain sides 
great masses of snow which have accumulated 
throusfh the winter become loosened bv water, 
as in the case of the landslide, and are drawn 
down the slope with great momentum, carrying 




FIG. 5. — SHALES "creeping" UNDER THE ACTION OF 
FROST. (U. S. G. S.) 

boulders, vegetation, everything within their 
path, and literally scraping the solid rock bare. 
(9) Glaciers. — It is now well established that 
in both North America and Europe glaciers, 
or great sheets of moving ice, existed in com- 








FIG. 6. FORMATION OF GLACIERS. (u. S. G. S.) 



21 



22 AGRICULTURE. 

paratively recent geological times; indeed, they 
are found to-day, though in mtcch /ess size and 
iiiivibe7' tJian formerly. 

The causes of the climatic changes which led 
to the formation and again to the disappearance 
of the glaciers are unknown. At the time of 
the great expansion these ice sheets covered 
nearly all of North America down to 40^ north 
latitude. 

Wherever, in high latititudes or altitudes, 
more snow falls in winter than melts in summer, 
glaciers are formed (Fig. 6). These glaciers 
carry with them (i) upon their surfaces, (2) 
frozen in their interior, and (3) pushed along 
in front or beneath them, great quantities 
of rock of all decrees of coarseness, from the 
gigantic boulders weighing tons to the finest 
clay. Rocks over which they pass are striated 
and polished (Fig. 7), and both these and the 
materials carried may be ground into clay by 
the enormous pressure of the slowly moving 
mass. The drift, or this deposit, is distributed 
over vast tracts, and is stratified or unstratified. 
The stratified drift is deposited by the water of 
glacial streams, while the unstratified is simply 
dropped by the melting ice. 

At the present time there are great tracts of 
glacial ice : {a) the Alpine, occupying narrow 
mountain valleys, as those of the Alps ; (<5) the 
Piedmont glacier, like the Malaspina, of Alaska 




PIG. 7.— ACTION OK GLACIER DRIFTS. (U. S. G. S.) 



24 AGRICULTURE. 

— lakes of ice formed by the union of many val- 
ley glaciers — which occupies an area of thirty by 
seventy miles, and which is covered along its 
southern border with morainic soil and great 
forests ; and (c) continental glaciers, covering 
vast tracts, comprising hundreds of thousands of 
miles, like those in Greenland and the antarctic 
land. 

(lo) Icebergs. — When glaciers enter the sea 
fragments are broken off by the tide — some of 
them hundreds of feet in depth and more than 
a mile in diameter — and float thousands of miles 
before they melt and deposit immense quantities 
of rock. 

It is evident, then, that the disintegration and 
transportation of the loose material of the earth's 
surface by the various forms of water 7'a7y 
greatly under varying conditions. 

The chemical action is more rapid in warm, 
moist countries where vegetation is abundant, 
while the great variations of heat and cold in 
the temperate regions, and the powerful frosts 
in the arctic, render mechanical action more po- 
tent and swift. 

Again, this work differs in its usefulness to the 
agriculturist. Sometimes a mantle of loose, 
workable material is deposited where a short 
time before the solid rock reached the surface, 
or great quantities of organic matter may be 
deposited which decay and enrich hitherto un 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 25 

productive soil. On the other hand, the hills, 
if unprotected by forest (Fig. 8), may be liter- 
ally washed away by rain and gully, rivulet and 
stream, until fertile farms are transformed into 
sandy wastes. 

Field Exercise No. i.* 

Part i. Work of Aiiftosphere. — {a) Note any rocks 
worn away by the friction of rain or sand through the 
action of wind. Note any rocks kept exposed to other 
atmospheric agencies through the action of wind ; note 
an}' wind-blown soil; any wind-blown water; vapor. 

{b) Note any evidences of chemical action; oxidation, 
hydration, action of carbon dioxide; " rotten rock." 
Draw a diagram showing successive stages of disinte- 
gration from solid rock to soil. (This diagram is to 
represent such a section actually observed in the day's 
excursion.) 

[c) Note effects of changes of temperature — that is, 
alternations of heat and cold — upon rocks. 

Part 2. Work of Water. — {a) Note evidences of its 
solvent power. Fill a small bottle with clear water from 
a spring or brook, and when you return to the labora- 
tory evaporate a few drops of it to dryness on a piece 
of glass or in a test-tube, and see if there is any residue; 
explain. 

{b) Disintegrating Power of Water. — Note evidences 



* This outline is meant to be only suggestive of what may be 
actually seen in a field trip along almost any stream in the 
north Mississippi valley. Many of the points mentioned will ap- 
ply toany locality of the United States; some will not. Neither 
will this outline include </// that will be found in any excursion. 
The student will simply omit any points mentioned which he does 
not actually find, and insert under the proper headingsany others 
found. 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 27 

of the washing out of loose material, and of the cutting 
power of water; of the abrasion performed by gravel, 
pebbles, and stones. 

(c) Transportation Power of Water. — Why is one 
stream clear and another muddy? Note any sand or 
soil dropped by water. 

(<^/) Note evidences of assorting power of water. 
Draw a section of the bank of a stream, showing strati- 
fication. 

(e) Note evidences of underground streams, of land- 
slides, and describe and explain. 

(/) Frozen Water. — Note work of frost, ice, glacier, 
and snowslides. 

III. Org>anic Life. 

Everywhere myriads of living forms abound 
— in the air, in the water, on the land, and in 
the soil. However, there must have been a 
time when life did not exist upon the earth. It 
must have begun in a very humble manner, be- 
cause the early conditions were such that com- 
plex organisms could not exist. 

It is believed by both geologists and embry- 
ologists that from these simple beings have 
evolved in succession, through vast ages of 
time, all the higher and more complicated 
forms. 

With the advent of life arose a new and 
mighty potency in the work of soil formation, 
and this force becomes the greater as life be- 
comes more varied and complex. 

I, Plant Life. — The fact that plants have 



28 AGRICULTURE. 

been from very early geological times, and still 
are, a powerful, though silent, factor in the pro- 
cesses of rock disintegration and soil formation 
is too often overlooked or underestimated. 

(i) Mechanical or Physical Effects. — 
Generally, wherever rock has been acted upon 
by the processes of weathering, vegetation 
creeps in. It may be some very low form, as 
fungus, moss, or lichen, but it sends its tiny 
root-like extensions into the crevices of the rock 
and forces apart its particles. 

In the higher forms of vegetation, where the 
roots are strong and woody, this becomes an 
important feature (Fig. 9). Huge boulders are 
burst asunder by the root-pressure of some giant 
tree; through innumerable rocky crevices larger 
or smaller root systems are finding their way, 
opening up the solid rock, and rendering it sus- 
ceptible to other disintegrating forces (Fig. 9). 
In this same way myriads of grass roots and 
roots of herbs and forest trees are pulverizing 
the solid material of the soil. 

While plants absorb water from the soil, at 
the same time, where vegetation is at all dense, 
they shield the earth's surface from the direct 
rays of the sun so effectively as to retard evapo- 
ration. This retained moisture exerts a solvent 
power upon the rock substances. 

Grasses, or other plants having thick, matted 
roots, prove a great protection from the mechan- 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 29 

ical removal of the soil (Fig. lo) by heavy rains 
or wind. Dense forests serve as windbreaks, and 
soil blown by the wind is lodged and prevented 
from further transportation by the trees. These 




FIG. 9. — ROOTS OF FOREST TREES OPENING A ROCKY Sl'BSOIL. 

forests, with their masses of roots and decayed 
leaves, also serve as a blanket in protecting from 
extremes of heat and cold. 

Masses of seaweed act as barriers to the surf, 
and the aerial roots of mangrove trees along 



30 



AGRICULTURE. 



tropical coasts break the force of the waves, 
so that they cannot wash away the mud and 
sand. 

(2) Chemical Effects. — The roots of living 
plants, from their acid secretion, effect a chem- 
ical action upon the insoluble substances with 




FIG. 10. — VEGETATION PROTECTING THE SOIL. 



which they come in contact, rendering them sol- 
uble, and absorbing into themselves large quan- 
tities of certain compounds as plant food, thus 
depriving the soil of this material. That this 
acid secretion actually corrodes or dissolves rock 
material was proven by Sachs through actual 
experiment, which any one may also prove for 
himself. By the decomposition of vegetation 
humic acids are formed, which have the power 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 31 

of dissolving many minerals not soluble in rain- 
water. 

Since plants can derive their food from much 
simpler elements than can animals, many scien- 
tists believe that the first forms of life were 
those of a very low type of vegetation. The 
only organisms which could exist upon a bare 
rock must be those which could subsist upon a 
purely mineral food obtained from the rock 
itself, and from the water and gases of the at- 
mosphere. It has been discovered that even the 
denuded rocks of very high mountains are cov- 
ered by a layer of organic matter, evidently 
formed by microscopic vegetation. These micro- 
organisms have even been discovered at con- 
siderable distance in the interior of these rocks. 
They begin the formation of humus, | and make 
it possible for other low forms of plant life to 
creep in, which, in turn, help to prepare the soil 
for the sustenance of chlorophyll-bearing, or 
green, plants. 

Bacteria. — The micro-organisms which are 
of most importance to agriculture are the bac- 
teria which (i) oxidize nitrogenous substances, 
thereby forming nitric acid, and (2 ) those which 
reduce nitric acid to ammonia or to free ni- 
trogen. 

In the processes of nitrification, ammonia is 
one of the first products formed from ferment- 
ing organic matter by one species of bacteria. 



33 AGRICULTURE. 

The ammonia (NH3) is oxidized to nitrous acid 
(HNO2) by another species; this in turn is 
changed into nitric acid ( HNO,) by still another 
species. In a similar manner the opposite pro- 
cess of denitrijication goes on. First, the nitric 
acid is reduced to nitrous acid, this to ammonia, 
and then to free nitrogen, each step being per- 
formed, respectively, by a distinct species of 
bacteria. 

Both of these processes may take place in the 
soil, their extent depending largely upon the 
oxygen supply. In a well-aerated soil nitrifica- 
tion takes place, while in an undrakied, poorly 
ventilated soil denitrification occurs. 

It has been proven by modern science that 
the nitrifying organism of the soil is able to sub- 
sist in a purely mineral environment. Now 
certain bacteria, or soil ferments, are found in 
great numbers about plant rootlets — in fact, liv- 
ing in mutual relationship with them. It is, 
therefore, thought probable that the action of 
bacteria has an effect upon the mineral particles 
of the soil which renders them solvent and pre- 
pares them for absorption by plants as food.'^' 
(Year-book, 1895.) 

Although these bacteria can subsist upon 



* The value of leguminous plants for worn out or poor soils 
has long been realized, but not until 1888, when Helriegel pub- 
lished the results of his investigations, was the real source of 
their fertilizing power known. 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 33 

minerals, they are far more flourishing in the 
presence of decaying organic matter. Indeed, 
their action is believed to hasten the decompo- 
sition of organic material. So it is that the 
plant, by its own decomposition, is through 
these agencies made to contribute to the forma- 
tion of humus, which is an essential part of true 
soil. 

(3) Vegetable Accumulations or Deposits. 
— Not only living plants exert an influence 
upon the soil, but when they die their remains 
form, though very slowly to be sure, accumula- 
tions of vegetable matter. 

(a) True soil. — Vegetable accumulation is 
most important as well as most conspicuous as 
a mantle of true soil, formed from the decayed 
vegetation in the forests or grass - covered 
prairies. 

(^) Wherever vegetation slowly undergoes 
decomposition under water carbonaceous accu- 
mulations are formed. The further decompo- 
sition proceeds the greater the percent, of car- 
bon ; thus results peat, lignite, bituminous, or 
anthracite coal, according to the stage of de- 
composition reached. 

{c) In fresh-water lakes and ponds, as well as 
in the sea, the siliceous cases of microscopic 
plants known as diatoms form considerable ac- 
cumulations. 

I. Animal Life. — Animals have a twofold 



34 AGRICULTURE. 

geological effect: (i) that of disintegration, and 
(2) that of accumulation. 

(i) Disintegration. — In the sea even the 
hardest rocks are made to crumble by marine 
animals boring into them. In like manner 
many animals burrow and bore through the soil. 

^\\& prairie dog oi the western United States 
digs a deep burrow in the earth, and casts up 
a mound at its entrance. There are whole vil- 
lages of these mounds, which in some localities 
cover many acres. Muskrats, crayfish, moles, 
woodchucks, and gophers in countless numbers 
are performing similar operations. 

Ants, especially in tropical countries, bring 
up sand grains from their underground tunnels, 
and form multitudes of ant-hills sometimes afoot 
or more in hight. Myriads of other insects, 
or their larvae, pulverize the soil particles or 
enrich them with their excreta and decayed 
bodies. 

But the most important of these animal 
agencies in stirring up, pulverizing, mixing, and 
ventilating the soil is that of the common earth- 
worm. Darwin, in his investigations upon the 
earthworm, estimated that in many parts of 
England "more than ten tons of earth annually 
pass through their bodies and is brought to the 
surface on each acre of land." In this way the 
whole superficial bed of soil would pass through 
their bodies in a few years. The specific action 



NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 35 

of earthworms has both a mechanical and a 
chemical effect. The burrows may extend sev- 
eral feet under ground, and are connected with 
each other by underground tunnels, so that the 
soil is thoroughly exposed to the chemical action 
of gases and acids of the air and water. The 
muscular gizzard grinds the stony particles swal- 
lowed by the worm, making them finer and 
more succeptible to the humic acids, the gener- 
ation of which is probably hastened during the 
digestion of the vegetable mould and half- 
decayed leaves, upon which the worm feeds. 

(2) Animal Accumulations. — Calcareous 
Deposits. — " The sea is constantly receiving 
from the land materials in solution, the most 
important of which are the carbonate and sul- 
phate of lime. Many classes of marine animals 
extract the calcium carbonate (CaCOj) from the 
sea-water and form it into hard parts, either as 
external shells and tests or as internal skeletons. 
There is also good reason to believe that some, 
at least, of these organisms are able to convert 
the sulphate into the carbonate." In shallow 
seas, where the conditions of warmth and food- 
supply are favorable, animal accumulations are 
developed on a large scale. The most impor- 
tant of these accumulations are those of the 
corals,* echinoderms, and mollusks. 



* Scott's Geology, pp. 165-170. 



36 AGRICULTURE. 

Many immense limestone beds were accu- 
mulated from the shells of mollusks and the 
skeletons, or calcareous plates, of starfishes, sea- 
urchins, crinoids, and all sorts of lime-secreting 
animals. The forameniferal oozes formed from 
the calcareous shells of microscopic, unicellular 
animals of the deep sea have a vast geograph- 
ical extent.* 

Siliceous Deposits. — The Radiolaria are a 
group of microscopic animals which make sili- 
ceous secretions instead of calcareous ones. 

Phosphate Deposits. — These are terrestial for- 
mations derived principally from guano, which 
is composed of the excrement, bones, and re- 
mains of birds (or in caves, bats). They are 
found in rainless regions, like Peru and its 
islands. When the guano is deposited over 
limestone it gradually changes the limestone 
from a carbonate to a phosphate of lime. 

3. Environmental Changes. — Beavers build 
dams across streams, and sometimes flood many 
acres of lowland. By felling trees they inter- 
rupt the drainage, thus forming marshes favor- 
ing the formation of peat beds. 

Man also may change natural conditions, 
either purposely or incidentally, by planting or 
destroying trees, thus causing the protection 
(Fig. 11) or denudation of hillside slopes; by 



* Jordan and Kellogg's Aniiiuil Life, p. 18. 







a _ 






38 AGRICULTURE. 

plowing and harrowing-, thereby exposing the 
soil to the action of the wind and rain ; by bor- 
ing wells, and excavating mines and quarries ; 
by controlling or directing the water of rivers 
and streams, and by irrigating dry or desert 
regions (Fig. 12), thus changing the natural 
environment very greatly if not altogether 

(Fig- 13)- 

4. Field Exercise No. 2. — A Study of Organic Life as a 
Factor in Soil Formation. 

Part i. Mechanical Action. — {a) Note the disinte- 
grating processes of plant life. Pull off the moss, or 
lichens, growing upon a solid rock, and see how far be- 
neath the surface the root-like extensions have crept. 
Measure and calculate the length of some great root- 
system which is exposed along the bank of a stream, or 
find rocks burst asunder by root action ; note examples 
of retarded evaporation. 

{b) Note the protection of soil by plants. 

{/) Note vegetable accumulations. In the woods, 
notice the formation of humus from the decayed leaves, 
twigs, and bark, and contrast the soil with that in the 
meadows, roads, and lawns. Account for these varia- 
tions, and discuss all factors concerned, as sunlight, air 
currents, depth of feeding roots, and kinds of material 
obtained by them at the different strata. What is the 
relative value of the soil from each place ? Take a sam- 
ple of each of these soils back to the laboratory, and try 
to grow a plant of the same kind and size in each soil, 
and record and compare your results. 

Part 2. Work of Disintegrating ami Pulverizing the 
Soil. — (a) Describe the work of as many different kinds 
of animals as it is possible to find in your trip ; dig up 
a block of soil containing the burrows of earthworms, 




FIG. 12. — VIEW OF AN IRRIGATING DITCH WHEN MADE. 




FIG. 13. — VIEW OF SAME DITCH TEN YEARS LATER. 



40 AGRICULTURE. 

and make a drawing of both vertical and horizontal, or 
connecting, channels. 

(/'') Note any environmental changes made by man or 
other animals, or by plants. 

{c) Note any fossils, or animal accumulations. 

(d) Remarks and conclusions. (It is to be understood 
that any observation made under any of the foregoing 
heads is to be written up in its place, whether it is men- 
tioned in this outline or not.) 

[References after Chaptt r III.] 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER II. 

CLASSIFICATION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS 

^.— KINDS AS TO DEPOSITION. 

I. Sedentary, or Residual, Soils. 

II. Transported Soils. 

1. Drift. 

(i) Boulder Clay, or Till. 
(2) Stratified Drift. 

2. Alluvial Soils. 

7?.— KINDS OF SOIL AS TO DERIVATION. 
I. Sandy, or Siliceous, Soils. 

II. Clayey, or Argillaceous, Soils. 

III. Limy, or Calcareous, Soils. 

IV. Humous Soils. 

C— PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 
Experiments 4, 5, 6, 7. 



41 



CHAPTER II. 

CLASSIFICATION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 

^.— KINDS AS TO DEPOSITION. 
I. Sedentary, or Residual, Soils. 

These are formed where they lie by the weath- 
ering of the rocks which underlie them. They 
consist of those parts of the decayed rock which 
are not easily dissolved and carried away by 
rains. 

These soils vary in depth. In certain local- 
ities the soil is only about seven feet thick, and 
poor in soluble compounds, such as lime. " In 
some parts of our Southern States the felspathic 
rocks are often found thoroughly disintegrated 
to the depths of 50 to 100 feet." '="' 

The natui^e of residual soils depends upon 
the kind of bed-rock underlying them and' the 
weathering. " Thus, limestones make the rich 
Blue-grass Region of Kentucky, and sandstones 
make the poorer part of the State." f 

True soil, usually darker in color on account of 
the vegetable mould which it contains, and of the 
"oxidation and hydration of its minerals," forms 
the surface layer. Below it is the subsoil, which 
is often divided into layers, and which some- 



* Scott's Geology, p. 77. 

■|- Gilbert and Brigham, Physical Geology , p. 87. 



43 



44 AGRICULTURE. 

times contains great masses of the parent rock 
which have not been decomposed. By grada- 
tions the subsoil shades into rotton rock, and 
from this into solid rock. 

II. Transported Soils. 

The soils upon vast areas of the United 
States have not been formed from the rock 
formation which underlies them, but they have 
been transported thither over long distances 
by ice, or water, or wind (Chapter I.). 

1. Drift. — Soils deposited by ice are called 
"drift," and may be distinguished by the pres- 
ence of boulders. These soils usually consist of a 
variety of minerals brought together from differ- 
ent rock formations through the action of 
glaciers. Drift soils cover great areas in the 
United States north of the 39th parallel. 

(i) Boulder Clay, or Till, is the unstratified 
material which covers the greater part of gla- 
ciated areas. It is composed partly of preglacial 
Soils and stones pushed before the glaciers, and 
partly of finely pulverized rock gathered from 
the bed-rock by the grinding and scraping or 
the glacier itself. 

(2) Stratified Drift is also found where it 
has been deposited by the water of glacial 
streams. 

2. Alluvial Soils are those which have been 
transported by streams of water (Chapter I.). 
These are usually stratified, often differing 



CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 45 

in the kind of rock material as well as in its 
state of disintegration. " The soils of the cen- 
tral valley of California have mainly come down 
from the Sierras by the wash of the rivers. The 
soils of Louisiana have been brought from the 
Rocky Mountains, from the great plains, from 
the prairies, and from the plateaus and moun- 
tains of the Appalachian region. They have 
been transferred by the Mississippi and its 
branches. The earthy mantle of Connecticut 
and Rhode Island is in part composed of rock 
flour and stones brought from Massachusetts 
and the northern New England States. The 
Connecticut and other rivers have done some of 
this work, but much more is due to the great 
glacier moving south over that region." "' 

^.— KINDS OF SOIL AS TO DERIVATION. 

As has been said, the basis of soils is disin- 
tegrated rock. Hence, the physical and chem- 
ical properties of soils depend upon the geolog- 
ical formation of the mass of rock from which it 
is derived. 

If a deposit of quartz (Si02), which it is esti- 
mated composes one-half of the rocks of the 
earth, has been slowly disintegrated it will result 
in hard, distinct grains of sand, since quartz dis- 
integrates with difficulty. 



Gilbert and Brigham, P/iysical Geology, p. 87. 



46 AGRICULTURE. 

I. Sand. 

Sand is "light and open" — that is, easy to 
work. It absorbs very little moisture from the 
air. It has little power of chemically holding 
plant-food. Sandy soils are usually poor in 
phosphoric acid and potash, two important plant- 
foods. 

II. Clay. 

If a feldspar — which consists of silica, alu- 
mina, and one or more of the alkalies, potash, 
soda, or lime — has been disintegrated, clay will 
result. The term "clay," however, is very 
loosely applied to almost any kind of finely pul- 
verized rock, or mud. 

Clay soils are hard to work; they absorb mois- 
ture from the air readily. They contain, chem- 
ically, much plant-food, being often rich in 
potash and poor in lime and phosphoric acid. 

Shale is a rock consisting of very thin layers. 
Its composition varies greatly, sometimes grad- 
ing into limestone or finely grained sandstone. 
Shales form mud or clay. 

III. Calcareous Soils. 

Some soils are largely composed of carbon- 
ate of lime from the disintegration of limestone, 
which is a soft rock and one easily dissolved. 
Soils containing a large per cent, of limestone 
are called calcareous soils. Lime makes clay 
soils more easily worked and sandy soils more 



48 AGRICULTURE. 

compact. It hastens the decay o^ vegetable 
matter. Limy soils are poor in potash and often 
rich in phosphates (see " Lime," p. 95). 

!V. Humous Soils- 

The decaying organic matter in soils is com- 
posed of compounds of nitrogen, hydrogen, 
oxygen, and carbon, and is called " humus." 
Soils containing a large per cent, of this or- 
ganic matter are designated as " humous 
soils." Humus gives a dark brown or black- 
ish color to the soil. Leaf mould very largely 
consists of humus. Either a sandy or a clay 
soil is improved by humus, not only on ac- 
count of the additional plant-food, such as car- 
bon dioxide, ammonia, and water, which is fur- 
nished by its ultimate decomposition, but more 
especially on account of the improvement of 
the physical condition of the soil. 

Humus absorbs and retains moisture, and thus 
improves a sandy soil. It improves a clay soil 
by making it less compact and better aerated. 
It improves the physical condition of worn-out 
soils. 

Humous soils are often rich in nitrogen and 
poor in mineral plant-food. A soil formed from 
the addition of humus to a sand, clay, or calcarc 
ous loam is called a clay or argillaceous loam. 
or calcareous loam, according to the kind of soil 
which forms the basis. 



CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF SOIL 49 

C— PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 

Experiment 4. Part i. — (a) Collect a quantity of 
dry sand, and one of dry clay, and one of dry garden 
loam, and one of dry humus. Keep these in a dry place 
in separate boxes, for use in the following experiments. 

((^) Get four small, similar-sized boxes, and fill each 
box with one of these soils. 

{c) Weigh each one separately. Which is heaviest? 
Which lightest ? 

{d) How many cubic inches of soil in each box ? 
What part of a cubic foot ? How many square feet in 
an acre ? How much would an acre of soil to the depth 
of one foot weigh if each cubic foot weighed the same 
as a cubic foot of your sample of garden soil ? 

(if) If this acre produced a crop of twenty-five bushels 
of wheat and 2,500 pounds of straw, how many pounds* 
has this crop taken from one acre of soil ? This may 
seem a very small amount to be taken from the soil, but 
it must be borne in mind that some soils contain a very 
small per cent., or fraction of a per cent., of some of the 
very essential plant-foods (as, potash, phosphoric acid, or 
nitrates), while plants vary in their demands for these 
different foods. So it is that certain essential plant- 
foods, as nitrogen, may be nearly exhausted from a given 
soil by repeatedly growing certain plants which make 
large demands of that particular element from the soil, 
and yet the same soil may be abundantly able to sustain 
other plants which demand less of that element from 
the soil, f 

Part 2. — {a) Place these four boxes (Part i, ^) of soils 
in a cool, dry place. With them place three similar 



* At least 95 per cent, of the material composing the plant is 
obtained from the air and water, and but 5 per cent, from the 
soil. 

f See " Leguminous Plants" and " Fertilizers." 



50 



AGRICULTURE 



boxes, each containing one of tliese soils, sand, clay, 
loam and humus, which has been thoroughly saturated 
with water. 

{/>) Put a thermometer with the bulb at the depth of two 

inches in each of 
these eight boxes, 
and allow them to 
stand until the fol- 
lowing morning ; 
then record the 
temperature of 
each. 

{c) Place all the 
boxes where they 
will be equally ex- 
posed to bright 
sunlight, and note 
the temperature of 
each soil every two 
hours from 8 a.m. 
to 4 P.M., taking 
care to note wheth- 
er the sun is under 
a cloud at the time 
of each observa- 
tion. 

(a) Upon a piece 
of co-ordinate 
paper indicate the 
temperature curve 
of each of these soils dry, and that of each of these soils 
wet, similar to that indicated for a humous soil in 
Fig. 15- In these curves (Fig. 15) the space between 
each two horizontal lines represents one degree, while 
that between each two vertical lines represents two 
hours. 







/ 


\ 










/ 




\ 






/ 




\ 








/ / 




\\ 








'/ 




\ 


\ 






/ 




\ 






1 








\ 




/ /* 










/ 


/ 










y 













fA.7n. fOAJH. 
FIG. 15 



/z;k S.M ¥fM. Uf/H. 

TEMPERATURE CURVES OF A 
HUMOUS SOIL. 



CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS 51 

Let the temperature curve of the loam be indicated by 

an unbroken line '-, that of sand by a l^roken line 

, and that of clay by a dotted line , and that 

of humus by a line and then a dot -.-.-.- 

Compare. Give a reason for the differences in tem- 
perature between these soils. 

((?) On the next bright day again saturate one box of 
each of these soils, and place the dry and wet soils in 
the bright sunlight. At noon record the temperatuVe of 
each, and remove all to the shade indoors. 

{/) Note the temperature at 2 iM\i. and 4 p.m. Which 
soil, dry, retains the greatest amount of heat ? Which 
soil, wet, retains the greatest amount of heat? 

(g) What conclusion of practical value do you draw 
from your results? Could you improve the condition of 
any or all of these soils with regard to the absorption 
and retention of heat? How? 

Part 3 — (a) Thoi'oughly moisten these soils and try 
to mold a handful of each kind (sand, clay, loam, humus) 
into some desired form. 

(d) Which soil has the greatest power of holding its 
particles together? Which the least? Which soil 
will be most liable to puddle ? Which most apt to 
bake ? 

(<•) Mix each of these soils with one-fifth its bulk of 
lime, and repeat {a). 

(,/) Mix each with one-third sand, and repeat (a). 

(<f) Mix each with one-third humus, and repeat (a). 

Of course, one could not apply sand, lime, or humus 
in quite such large proportions in the open field, but it 
could be done for house plants, and in smaller propor- 
tions in gardens and fields. Which of these soils would 
'l)e improved for working by (r)? {dj? (e)? 

Experiment 5. — {d) Procure three pieces of tubing of 
equal lengths and diameters — from two to two and one- 
half feet long, and one-half inch or more in diameter. 



52 



AGRICULTURE. 



{^) Firmly tie over the bottom of each tube a square 
of cheese-cloth. (Fig. i6 ) 

{c) Weigh each tube separately, and then record ihe 
weights. 

(</) Fill the tubes three-fourths full of a'r/V^ sand, clay, 
humus, and loam respectively. 

(e) Carefully weigh each tube with its contents, and 
record tlie weights. 

(/) Now fill each tube with water which has been 
leached from stable compost, taking care to record the 
exacf time when the v^dX^x first comes in contact with the 
soil. 

{g) Support or suspend these tubes in an upright po- 
sition (Fig. i6), and allow the water from each tube 
to drip into a separate vessel. Observe and record the 
time required for the water to begin to drip from each 
tube. Keep ^-=r-. 
each tube filled J 
with the leach- 
ed water until 
the soil is satur- 
ated. Through 
which tube did 
the water pass 
most rapidly ? 



/ 




\\^:^5^::^^ 



S 



FIG. l6. — APPARATUS FOR EXPERIMENT 5. 




This passage of 
water down- 
ward through 
the soil is call- >sL 
ed perc o 1 a 
tion. 

{Ji) Compare the color and the odor of the water per- 
colated. Through which of these soils will soluble 
plant-food most readily leach ? Which soil will absorb 
the most plant-food from the water which percolates 
through it ? 



CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 



53 






(/*) Allow the liquid to drip for half an hour, and com- 
pare the water which now percolates through with that 
fit St percolated. Is it safe to depend upon the soil to act 
as a filter in purifying the water of wells from organic 
matter ? 

(y) Very carefully pour off all the water remaining in 
the tubes, and weigh each tube with its contents, record 
the weights, and compare with those of (e). Which soil 
retained the greatest amount of water ? 

Experiment 6. — (a) Procure a set of capillary tubes 
(Fig, 17) — four or five tubes — varying in diameter from 
a hair tube to one one-fourth inch in diameter. 

(^) Half fill a beaker, or tumbler, 
with water colored witli red ink. 

(c) In a piece of pasteboard punch 
several holes corresponding in size 
and numl)er to the tubes used; thrust 
the tubes through the holes to 
three-fourths the distance, below, of 
the height of the beaker. Now cover 
the beaker with this pasteboard, 
allowing the tubes to extend down 
into the colored liquid (Fig. 17). 

(d) Note the height to which the 
Capillary rise of liquid not liquid riscs in each tube. In which 

shown. highest ? 

The wall of the tube attracts the film of water 
next to it, and tends to spread It out over the 
surface of the tube, overcoming the resistance 
of the surface tension of the liquid itself. Notice 
that the surface of the liquid both inside and 
outside of the tubes assumes a concave shape, 
on account of the creeping up of the liquid next 
to the wall, caused by the attraction between 




FIG, 17, — APPARATUS 
FOR EXPERIMENT 6. 



AGRICULTURE. 



1 


■ 


1 


i 


1' 

H 1 


Hi 

Ill 


* 

i 


1 


■' 




i 

i, 




1 f ■■^PlpB ilnll ' 




lllllil'li^ 




■^H^^^^^^^Hk ' 






r 









FIG. l8. — APPARATUS FOR EXPERIMENT "J, 



the solid and liquid substances. (See any good 
physics for capillary action). 

The pores in an open, or gravelly, soil act as 
the larger tubes, while the smaller pores of a 



CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 55 

less open or more finely pulverized soil act as 
the fine tubes in conveying moisture. 

Experiment 7. — (a) Take four glass tubes one-half 
inch or more in diameter and four feet in length * 
(Fig. 18). Over the bottom of each of these tubes firmly 
tie a square of cheese-cloth. 

(/') Thoroughly pulverize the dried clay and loam. 
Firmly and evenly fill each tube with the sand, clay, loam, 
and humus respectively. Stand them in a pan of water 
with a layer of gravel in the bottom, and record the 
time of so doing. Keep the pan well filled with water. 

(f) At intervals — from one to three hours during the 
first day or two — note the height of the water in each 
tube. After the second day, once a day will be often 
enough to make observations. 

((/) Continue the observations and records until the 
water no longer rises in any tube. 

((f) In which tube did the water rise most rapidly? 
In which to the greatest height? This poiver cf dra7ving 
water upward through the soil is called capillarit). 

Exercise 2. — From the data obtained in performing 
these experiments, write up the. phsicaly properties of each 
of these four kinds of soil. Your description of each 
soil should cover the following points: Color, weight of 
a cubic foot, light or heavy to work, power to absorb 
heat, power to retain heat, power of holding soil particles 
togetlier, porosity, power to absorb and retain water, 
capillarity, and any remarks. 

[References after Chapter III.] 



*Straight lamp-chimneys may be substituted for the long glass 
tubing. It is more economical, and will give satisfactory results, 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER III. 

SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 

^.— SOIL MOISTURE. 
I. Kinds of Moisture. 

1. Ground Water. 

2. Capillary Water. 

3. Hygroscopic Water. 

Experiment 8. 

II. Relation to Plants. 

1. Dissolves Plant-food. 

2. Conveys Plant-food. 

Experiment 9. 

3. Constitutes Plant- food. 

Experiment 10. 

4. Tends to Regulate Temperature. 

III. Field Exercise No. 3. 

^.—PREPARATION OF THE SOIU 

I. Drainage. 

Experiments ii and 12. 

II. Irrigation. 

Experiment 13. 

III. Preparation of Seed-bed. 

1. Plowing. 

2. Surface Tillage. 

Experiment 14. 

C— REFERENCES. 

57 



CHAPTER III. 

SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 

y^.— SOIL MOISTURE. 

It is evident from the foregoing experiments 
that the particles of soil and, therefore, of the 
spaces between them, vary in size. When the 
soil is dry most of the spaces are filled with air, 
but when the soil becomes wet the air is driven 
out by the water. 

I. Kinds of Moisture. 

1. Ground ]\\itcr. — The water which perco- 
lates through the soil under the influence of 
gravity until it reaches an impervious layer of 
hard-pan, or rock, is called the free or ground 
water of the soil. Above the hard-pan, or rock, 
is a layer — varying in thickness — of saturated, 
or water-soaked, soil. It is from this free water 
that the supply is obtained for springs and wells. 
In dry weather it is drawn upon by capillary 
action to furnish the moisture for vegetation, 
but if this free water is allowed to stand too 
near the surface of the soil it is injurious to 
most plants. In soils of close texture it be- 
comes necessary to remove the surplus water by 
drainage. 

2. Capillary Water is that which is held in 
the spaces between the soil particles by capillary 

59 



(JO AGRICULTURE. 

attraction, or the overcoming of the influence 
of gravity by the adhesion between the water 
and the solid particles, and is of direct use to 
plants. 

3. Hygroscopic Moisture. — Each particle of 
soil is surrounded by a film of moisture, or hy- 
groscopic water. It is held so firmly that even 
roadside dust contains this film. 

Experiment 8. — Fill a test-tube one-third full of 
dry roadside dust; heat it gradually to a high temper- 
ature. Allow it to cool, and see if any moisture con- 
denses upon the tube. 

II. Relation to Plants. 

1. Dissolves Plant-food. — This surface film of 
water, through the carbonic and humic acids 
which it contains (Chapter I.), acts directly 
upon the plant-foods locked up in the soil, dis- 
solving the mineral substances and giving them 
up to the surrounding capillary water. 

2. Conveys Plant-food. — As has been seen, 
solids have an attraction for liquids. It is also 
true that denser or thicker liquids have an at- 
traction for thinner ones; so it is, as the mois- 
ture is evaporated from the leaves and green 
bark of plants, leaving behind the solid sub- 
stances, the fluid in the plant becomes denser 
than the soil water, and there is thus established, 
through the cell wall of the plant, a flow of the 
thinner liquid, or soil water, toward the denser 
protoplasm of the cells. This process is called 



SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 61 



osmosis. Thus the soil water not only dissolves 
the plant-food, but through capillary action and 
osmosis actually carries this food to the plant. 

Experiment 9. — {a) Take any single-stemmed grow- 
ing plant, place the roots in 
a wide-mouthed bottle half 
full of water. 

{b) Make the bottle air-tight 
(to avoid the evaporation of 
the water) by splitting a cork 
into halves, hollowing out the 
center, and fitting them about 
the stem of the plant ; now 
fill any crevice about the 
stem, or in the top of the cork, 
with melted paraffin.* Invert 
the bottle to see if any water 
escapes ; if so, the cork is not 
fitted air-tight, and melted 
paraffin must be applied 
where it leaks. 

(c) When the bottle is air- 
tight weigh it, and record 
date and weight. The follow- 
ing day place it where the 
plant will be exposed to direct 
sunlight, and weigh every day 
or two for two or three weeks. 
How much water has the plant 
used ? Of what use to the 
plant was the water? 

Hellriegel, through his experiments, found 




FIG. 19. — APPARATUS FOR 
EXPERIMENT 9. 



* Paraffin melts at a low temperature, and will not injure the 
plant if carefully applied. 



62 AGRICULTURE. 

that the amounts of water evaporated from 
the soil and given to the air ahiiost wholly 
through the plant were : by barley and red 
clover, 3 lo pounds of water to one pound of dry 
matter produced; oats, 376 pounds; peas, 273 
pounds ; and buckwheat, 363 pounds to one 
pound of dry matter. Plants differ in their de- 
mands for water, hence some kinds of plants are 
found upon dry soils and others upon wet soils. 

3. Constitutes Plant-food. — Water itself con- 
stitutes an important plant food. 

Experiment 10. — (</) Secure some green but well- 
grown plant (roots and alH, as clover, corn, or cow-peas; 
carefully remove the soil from the roots. 

{h) Weigh the plant accurately, and record the 
weights. 

[c) Hang the plant in a warm, dry place for two or 
three weeks, or until perfectly dry. 

{ci) Weigh again, and record weights. What per cent, 
of the plant was water ? What per cent, dry matter ? 

4. Tends to Regulate Temperature. — The 
water which percolates through the soil from 
spring rains is warmer than the soil and tends 
to raise the temperature, while that from sum- 
mer rains is cooler than the soil and tends to 
lower the temperature. 

III. Field Exercise No. 3- 

{a) Let the student k)ok for different kinds of soil — as, 
dry, sandy soil, and wet soil — in the vicinity. 

{U) Note (ol)serve and list) the kinds of wild or culti- 
vated plants growing upon each kind of soil. Do some 
plants thrive in one soil which are not found in others.'' 



SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 63 

(c) If a farm contain certain areas of each of tliese 
kinds of soil, wliat use can the farmer make of this sug- 
gestion of Nature ? Are any of tlie same kinds of plants 
found upon all of tliese soils? If so, compare their con- 
ditions. 

(ii) Can you give reasons for these conditions? In 
which soils can the air enter freely? Which with more 
difificulty? Which gives the best support in time of 
storms? Will each soil require the same treatment? 

Experiments 9 and lo show how essential soil 
moisture is to plants. Water and air not only 
furnish 95 per cent, of the food of plants, but 
the remaining 5 per cent, cannot be obtained 
from the soil except through the agency of air 
and water. Heat and light are also important 
factors in plant growth. It has been shown that 
soils vary in the power to admit air, and in the 
power to absorb and retain heat, and that the 
condition with regard to soil moisture affects 
these variations. The farmer can, by proper 
methods of drainage and tillage, greatly modify 
or regulate Xk\^'s>^ factors of plant growtJi — water, 
air, and heat — in the soil. It is evident that dif- 
ferent soils require different methods, and that 
the same soil requires different treatment for 
different plants. Tillage does not add plant- 
food to the soil, but it does render food already 
in the soil available to the plant. 

^.—PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
The first thing for a farmer to do, and then to 
continue doing, is to study his soils, taking into 



64 AGRICULTURE. 

consideration the climate. The next thine to 
do is to consider what crops are best adapted to 
the different soils, remembering that both the 
immediate crops and the condition of the soil 
for future crops are to be regarded. Thus fol- 
lows the consideration of the treatment of each 
kind of soil for the crop selected or tJie prepara- 
tio7i and tillage of the soil. 

I. Drainage. 

Experiment ii. — {a) Take two eight-inch flower-pots 
and label them i and 2, respectively. In No. i pour a 
sufficient amount of melted paraffin in the bottom to 
plug up the hole, so that no air may pass in, and no 
water pass out through the bottom of the pot. In the 
bottom of No. 2 place a layer about an inch in depth of 
stones or pieces of broken pottery. 

{h) Nearly fill each pot with a mixture of three-fourths 
good soil, thoroughly pulverized, and one-fourth sand. 

(c) Place in each pot a young, healthy plant of the 
same size and kind. 

(^) Now carefully sprinkle each with water until the 
soil is saturated. 

{e) After a day or two put these pots in a sunny win- 
dow. 

(/) In each place a thermometer, with the bulb at a 
depth of two inches 

i^g) Every two or three days note the temperature, and 
the condition of the soil and of the plants in each pot. 
In which pot does the water percolate through the soil 
the more rapidly? If each of these conditions of soil 
moisture was found in separate fields, which field would 
be more apt to be flooded in time of heavy rains? In 
which could air penetrate the more readily? In which 
would the temperature be higher? 



SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 65 

{h) At regular intervals — say, every two or three days 
— apply equal quantities of water to each of these pots. 

(/ ) In about five or six weeks remove the soil — plant and 
all (see "Propagation of Plants") — and note the depths 
to which the roots have penetrated. In which have they 
gone the deeper, the drained or undrained soil ? If these 
conditions of soil moisture existed in the open field in 
early spring, and were followed by a drought, how 
would these root systems compare in aiding tlie plant 
to withstand it? In nature, when these root systems 
die, how would they compare in affecting the porosity 
of the soil ? How would such soils affect the nitrogen- 
fixing bacteria (Chapter I.)? How would the work of 
earth-worms, grubs, and other burrowing animals com- 
pare in these two soils ? 

Soils having a loose and open subsoil are nat- 
urally underdrained, and do not need to be arti- 
ficially drained. Soils of fine texture, or those 
having a clay or hard subsoil, do not allow the 
free water to percolate through them, and it 
stands very near the surface, unless artificially 
drained. It is not as the water passes down 
through the soil that it is carried away by drains, 
but as it rises again in saturating the soil above 
the impervious layer of hard-pan or bed-rock. 
The deeper the drain the greater the area drain- 
ed, hence the wider apart the drains may be. 

ExPERiMNT 12. — {a) Procure a keg, or barrel, which 
does not leak, and in its side bore two or three holes, one 
above the other, about twelve inches apart, the first hole 
being six inches from the bottom. 

{b) Nearly fill this keg, or barrel, with soil. Shake it 
down firmly. 



66 AGRICULTURE. 

(<■) Gradually pour water into the center of the keg — 
where the soil should be, perhaps, a little lower — until it 
runs out of some one of the holes. 

According to your result, which would carry off the 
water first — a shallow or a deep drain ? 

In shallow drains there is clanger that the tile 
may be injured by frost. The depth to which 
a drain should be laid depends upon the char- 
acter of the soil; the more compact soil requires 
more numerous and shallower drains. Three or 
four feet deep and one hundred feet apart are 
sufficient for ordinary farm crops. " The carry- 
ing" capacity of tile varies with the square of the 
diameter." '"' In every drain the tile should in- 
crease in size as the quantity of water increases. 
Tile varying from three to six inches, with 
larger size for mains, are generally used. 

Since tile-drains admit more or less atmos- 
pheric air, as the temperature and pressure 
of the atmosphere rise and fall, the circula- 
tion of the air is produced below the roots of 
plants as well as above them. 

II. Irrigation. 

Experiment 13. — (a) Procure a box about three feet 
long, one and one-half wide, and one foot deep. 

(d) In the center of one side, near the bottom, bore a 
hole, and fit into it a cork (Fig. 20). 

(c) Nearly fill the box with dry, pulverized soil, and 
shake it down well. 

(d) Now make a shallow trencli in the soil, across tlie 



Soils unci Crops, Morrow and Hunt, p. 66. 



SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. G7 



center of the box, and slovvl}' pour water into it, until the 
soil at the bottom of the box is moist, as determined by 
removing the cork, and thrusting a rod, or straw, into 
the hole. 

(<?) Now, beginning at each side of the trench, remove 
a layer of the soil three inches in depth, noting carefully 
just how far the v^^ater has extended from the trench by 
lateral capillary action. 

\UJUlilLll~ 




FIG. 20. ^APPARATUS FOR EXPERIMENT I3. 

(/) Remove another layer of soil three inches in 
depth, and note the lateral extension of the water at this 
depth. 

(^'■) Remove a third layer three inches in depth, and 
note again. Compare the lateral extension of the water 
at each of these depths with that of the other two. 

It is upon this principle of lateral capillary 
action that irrio-ation is based. 

o 

III. Preparation of the Seed-bed. 

I. Piozui7ig\s done before planting (0 to de- 
stroy weeds by completely covering them ; (2) 
to bring plant-food to the surface ; (3) to pul- 
verize and aerate the soil ; and (4) to allow the 



68 AGRICULTURE. 

water to percolate through the soil instead of 
running- off of the surface. Plowing should 
never be done when the soil is wet enough to 
puddle.* 

A soil which is loose and open, or one having 
a sandy subsoil, does not require such deep 
plowing as a more compact soil. If the soil is 
wet and not underdrained, plowing may only 
increase the supply of ground water. If it is 
desired to deepen a soil, it is best to plow a little 
deeper each time, so that the portion of subsoil 
brought to the surface will not be sufficient to 
materially injure the character of the soil for the 
immediate crop. A small amount can be more 
readily acted upon by the weathering agencies 
than a greater amount can be. 

Plowing at different depths prevents the 
formation of a hard-pan by the tramping of the 
horses at the same depth in successive plow- 
ings. On the other hand, if the soil is very 
porous, it may be prevented from leaching by 
plowing at the same depth to form this hard- 
pan, thus keeping the free, or ground water, 
within the reach of plants. If deep-feeding 
plants — as, alfalfa, clover, or vetch — are to oc- 
cupy the land, it should be deeply plowed, and 
thoroughly pulverized. 

In early spring shallow plowing is usually 
preferable, as the deeper soil is not so warm 

*See " Propagation." 



SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 69 




I i « 



FIG. 21. — A GOOD PLOW. 

Parts of a Plow. — a. The standard, or stock, to which many 
parts are attached. — b. The beam, by which the plow is drawn. — 
c. Handles. — d. Clevis. By placing the ring in the upper holes of 
the clevis, the plow is made to run deep; by placing the ring in 
the lower holes, the plow is made to run shallow; by moving the 
clevis to the right, the plow is made to cut a wider furrow. — e. 
The share, which cuts the bottom of the furrow slice. — f. The 
mouldboard, which turns and breaks the furrow slice. — k. The 
coulter which, when fastened to the beam, just in front of mould- 
board, cuts the furrow slice from the land, and in disk-form is 
useful in turning under weeds. — i. The^ Jointer, which skims stub- 
ble and grass from the soil, and throws them into the bottom of 
the furrow to be completely covered, and helps to pulverize the 
soil. — J. The truck, or wheel, attached to the end of the beam 
which steadies the plow and lightens the draft. 



nor so dry as that near the surface. For winter 
wheat, if the ground has been plowed in the 
spring, it will require only shallow plowing, or, 
if an open soil, disking may be sufficient. 

If plowing is for the purpose of drying and 
warming the land in the early spring the fur- 
row slices should not be turned down flat, but 
allowed to incline at an angle to allow the air 



70 



AGRICULTURE. 



and heat to enter. The same plan is beneficial 
if the plowing is done in the fall, as the rains 




I''in. 22. — A I'LANK HARROW. 



will percolate through the soil instead of run- 
ninof off of the surface. 

2. Su7'face Tillage. — Plowing should be fol- 
lowed by surface-working tools, to pulverize the 




FIG. 23. — A ROLLING CUTTER HARROW 

the ground and to prepare an earth mulch. 
The first surface tillage to follow the plowing 
should be done before the ground becomes too 
hard and dry with a heavy, coarse tool to crush 



SOIL MOISTUKK AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 71 

the clods, as a drag, or planker, or rolliJig cnt 
ter harrow (Fig. 23), or spring-ioothcd harrow 




FKi. 24. — A SPRING-TOOTHED HARROW. 

(Fig. 24). The seed-bed may be completed by 
a fine-toothed, lighter harrow, or a coulter 
harrow (Fig. 25), which "cuts, turns, and pul- 
verizes " the soil. 




FIG. 25. — A COULTER-TOOTHED HARROW. 

The roller is not used so much as formerl\-, 
since it leaves the soil in such a condition that 
capillary water may rise to the surface. Plank- 



•J'2 AGRICULTURE. 

ers''' (Fig. 22) are usually better than rollers, 
since they grind the clods instead of pushing 
them down into the soil, and make a smooth sur- 
face for seed-bed. Rolling after planting may 
aid the germination of the seeds in dry weather, 
as it brings the moisture within their reach; 
especially is it beneficial in the case of fine 
seeds. Rolling compacts the soil (hence it 
benefits a light, open soil), but should not be 
practiced upon a heavy or luct soil. 

Experiment 14. — {a) Take four gallon-cans, or paint 
buckets, label them i, 2. 3, 4. Make several holes in 
the bottom of each, and put a layer of coarse stones, or 
pieces of broken pottery, in the bottom. 

{!)) Fill cans i, 2, and 3 to within one-fourth inch of 
the top with mellow soil, and can 4 to within three inches 
of the top. Firm the soil well in each can. 

(c) Stand all of them in water until the surface soil 
becomes moistened. How does the surface become 
moist? In field conditions, how would this supply of 
moisture be obtained ? 

(^) Take them out of the water and allow them to 
stand until the surface is dry enough to work. Leave 
No. I as it is, and carefully pulverize and loosen the 
soil in No. 2 to the depth of two inches, and that in 
No. 3 to a depth of three inches, and cover No. 4 with 
a three inch mulch of sawdust or straw. 

(<f) Weigh each can separately, and record the weights. 

(/) Place all under similar conditions — if possible, in 
an open window, or where the air will pass over them 
freely. 

* Ffrtility of the Soil, Roberts, p. 103, and Principles of Agri- 
culture, Bailey, p. 75. 



SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 73 



(g) Allow them to stand until tlie surface of the soil 
in can No. i isdry. Weigh again, and compare with {e). 

{/i) Carefully dig down into the soil of each can, and 
measure the distance from the surface to a layer of 
moist soil. Compare these distances In which can 
would the conditions be better adapted to surface-feeding 
plants? In which to deep-feeding plants? Ho7v dots 
the water escape ? Out of which can has it escaped 
most slowly? Most rapidly? Why? In which can the 
air most freely enter the soil ? In outdoor soils of these 
three conditions, which would fio7v allow the water to 
pass into it least freely? Which of these soils represent 
a rolled soil? Which a loosely tilled soil? How would 
a rain affect each of these soils ? Why is it necessary to 
till the soil about growing plants as sooti as possible 
after a rain ? What is the condition of soil in the field 
in early spring? How 
does early spring plow- 
ing affect the evapora- 
tion of soil moisture ? 

(/) Compare these 
mulches, and record 
your own conclusions 
upon the teachings of 
this experiment. 

Tillage for surface- 
feeding roots may be 
deep when the plants 
are quite young, but 
when they have made 
considerable growth plowing must necessarily 
be shallow to avoid destroying the roots (Fig. 
26), which sometimes reach from row to row. 

Cultivation should not be repeated until the 




FIG. 26. TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF 

DEEP AND SHALLOW PLOWING. 



74 AGRICULTURE. 

soil is reduced to too fine a dust, for it is apt 
to puddle when it rains, and exclude the air. 
Tillage also keeps down the weeds, which would 
rob the soil of plant-food and exclude heat and 
ligrht. 

C— REFERENCES FOR CHAPTERS I., II., AND III. 

" Systems of Farm Management in the United States." Year- 
book, 1902. 

" The Movement and Retention of Water in Soils." 

" Some Interesting Soil Problems." Year-book 1807. 

" Origin, Value, and Reclamation of Alkali Lands." Year- 
book, 1895. 

" Reasons for Cultivating the Soil." Year-book, 1S95. 

" Irrigation for the Garden and Greenhouse " Year-book, 
1895. 

"Soil Investigations in the United States." Year-book, 1899. 

" Some Important Soil Formations." Bulletin 5, i8g6, Division 
of Agricultural Soils, LTnited States Department of Agriculture. 

"Soil Solutions." Bulletin 17, Division of Soils, Lhiited States 
Department of Agriculture. 

" Instruction in Agronomy at Some Agricultural Colleges." 
Bulletin 127, Office of Experiment Station, United States Depart- 
ment. 

" Bulletin 41, 1893," Minnesota Agricultural Experiment 
Station. 

" The Soil." King. 1900. 10. 

"Soils and Crops." Morrow & Hunt. 1902. 4. 

" Manual of Geology." Dana. 1895. 

" Physical Geography." Gilbert & Brigham. 1902. i. 

" An Introduction to Geology." Scott. 1897. 10. 

" Geology." Brigham. i. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER IV. 

THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 

.^— USES OF THE SOIL TO PLANTS 
I. It Serves as a Foothold. 
II. It Affords Plant-food. 

III. It Acts as a Storehouse for Water. 

IV. It Retains and Regulates the Heat. 

V. It Serves as a Habitation for Soil Bacteria. 

/?.— CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 

I. Chemical Analysis of Plants. 

II. Sources of Plant-food. 

1. Air -de rive J El e me fits. 

(i) Carbon. 

(2) Oxygen. 

(3) Hydrogen. 

(4) Nitrogen. 

2. Soil-derii'ed Eleiiienfs. 

(i) Phosphorus. 
(2) Potassium. 

C— FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. 
I. Chemical Analysis of Soils. 

II. Vegetation Experiments. 

III. Fertilization of the Soil. 

I. Coiinnercidl Fertilizers. 

(i) Nitrogenous Compounds. 
(2) Phosphorous Compounds. 

75 



76 AGRICULTURE. 

(3) Potassium Compounds. 

(4) Table of Fertilizing Materials. 

(5) Lime. Exercise 4. 
2. Stable Compost. 

(i) Value in Furnishing Plant-food. 

(2) Shameful Waste. 

(3) Effects Upon the Soil. 

(4) Protection and Application of the Com- 

post. 

Z>.— REFERENCES. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 

^.— USES OF THE SOIL TO PLANTS. 

I. The Soil Serves as a Foothold. 

The roots penetrate the soil and brace the 
plants against the wind, and hold them erect so 
that they more readily obtain air and light. 
The necessity for this support is made greater 
by the elongation of the stem in the struggle for 
liorht. 

II. It Affords Important Food Clements. 

Although but 5 per cent, of the food supply of 
plants is obtained from the soil, it does not fol- 
low that this 5 per cent, may be omitted. On 
the contrary, many of the soil-furnished ele- 
ments are absolutely necessary to the life and 
development of plants. 

III. The Soil Acts as a Storehouse for Water, 

so that the plant may draw upon its supply con- 
tinuously, or much more nearly so than if it de- 
pended only upon the moisture obtained from 
the air and from that obtained for immediate 
use from rains. This soil water is invaluable 
both as a food and as a solvent for other con- 
stituents of plant-food, since plants can only 
take up substances which are soluble in the soil 

77 



78 AGRICULTURE. 

water (which usually contains organic acids), or 
which may be rendered soluble by the acid reac- 
tion of the roots. 

IV. It Tends to Retain and Regulate the Heat 

of the sun, and transform it into energy which 
plants can use. 

V. It Serves as a Habitation for Soil Bacteria, 

which transforms the unavailable free nitrogen of 
the air into nitrates available for the use of plants. 

^..—CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 

I. Chemical Analysis of Plants. 

Many analyses of the tissues of different 
plants have been made (though by no means of 
all plants), and through these analyses it has 
been ascertained that one plant may contain 
certain compounds — or particular combinations 
of these elements — which do not e\;ist in some 
other plants. These analyses show that all 
plants are essentially made up of fourteen ele- 
ments, or about that number. 

II. Sources o? Plant-food. 

Four of these elements — carbon, oxygen, hy- 
drogen, and nitrogen — are obtained directly or 
indirectly from the air, while the soil must sup- 
ply the remaining ten elements : iron, calcium, 
silicon, chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, potas- 
sium, sodium, magnesium, and manganese. The 
food elements obtained from the soil are the 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 79 

more numerous, but they form a very small per 
cent, of the quantity of plant tissues (not over 
four or five per cent, altogether), while the ele- 
ments obtained indirectly or directly from the 
air form 95 per cent, or more of the quantity. 

I . Air-derived Elements. 

( I ) Carbon. — Nearly half of the solid mate- 
rial of plants is carbon. It is found in the oils, 
starch, sugar, and albuminoids.;]; The leaves take 
in carbon dioxide from the air and decompose 
it (in the light) into its elements, carbon and 
oxygen, building up other compounds with the 
carbon and giving off the greater part of the 
oxygen. 

(2) Oxygen too may be directly taken from 
the air by leaves, buds, and flowers, or by the 
roots. It is also taken in in large quantities in 
the water absorbed. Oxygen forms a part of 
nearly all the compounds found in plants. 

(3) Hydrogen, in combination with oxygen 
forming water, is an important element in 
plants There is no other compound so abun- 
dant in plants as that of water, and none whose 
function is more important, since it holds in so- 
lution other elements, or compounds, of plant- 
foods, and acts as a medium for transporting 
them to every tissue and cell of the plant. 

(4) Nitrogen is an essential element in all the 
green and woody parts of plants — in fact, of all 
the protoplasm, or living substance, of the plant. 



80 



AGRICULTURE. 




Insufficient available nitrogen. Sufficient available nitrogen. 

FIG. 27. — SHOWING EFFECT OF NITRATE. 

It promotes vegetative growth rather than fruit- 
fulness. The presence of sufficient nitrogen 
available* to the plant — unless counteracted by 
some phosphate — is manifested by the vigor 
and deep green color of the leaf, with possibly 
retarded flowers and fruit, while the lack of 
available nitrogen is shown by scanty and pale 
foliage. The quantity available greatly affects 

* Available plant-food is in such form that the plants can and 
will use it. 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 81 

the amount of nitrogen stored up in the plant, 
and thus the access or lack of available nitrogen 
largely modifies the nutritive value of the plant 
as food for animals. 

Four-fifths of the atmosphere is composed of 
this element so important to plant life, but most 
plants can be supplied root and branch with an 
abundance of nitrogen gas and yet starve for 
the want of nitrogen ; for no green plants can 
take in free nitroQfen. It must be combined 
with other elements in such a manner as to 
form compounds soluble in the soil water, so 
that it may be taken up by the roots.* The 
nitrates and ammonium salts are such com- 
pounds. There are certain kinds of plants 
which are intimately connected with particular 
forms of bacteria. This relation f is mutually 
beneficial. The bacteria work upon the roots 
of the plants, forming nodules (Fig. 28), and 
in turn convert the free nitrogen of the air in 
the soil into soluble nitrates for the use of the 
plant hosts. II 

Since most plants do not have access to the 
exhaustless supply of nitrogen afforded by the 
air, and there is only a small per cent, of avail- 
able nitrogen in ordinary soil, and since nitrogen 

* ' ' Some plants absorb through their /laves a very small per cent, 
of ammonia directly from the air." — Yeai-hook, United States 
Department of Agriculture, 1901. 

f Symbiosis. 

II See " Leguminous Plants." 



82 AGRICULTURE. 

is SO essential to plant growth, it must be sup- 
plied in some other way. This phase of the 
subject will be further discussed under " Fertil- 
izers." 

All of the food elements obtained from the 
air, except nitrogen, are directly available from 
that source, so need no further mention. 

2. Soil-derived Elements. 

Of the ten elements obtained from the soil, 
all except phosphorus, potassium, and lime are 
present in sufficient quantities, and in such form 
as to supply the needs of plants, except in 
special cases. 

(i) Phosphorus. — It has been proven by re- 
peated experiments that phosphorus in the form 
of phosphates ■'^' is essential to the healthy de- 
velopment of plants. Growth cannot take place 
without the presence of phosphorus in the 
nucleus of the cells. It helps in the assimila- 
tion of other food, induces seed-formation and 
the maturity of the plant, and assists in trans- 
ferrinor the albuminoids to the seed. 

The presence of phosphorus in an available 
form, if uncounteracted, is manifested by early 
maturity and plump, well-filled seeds. Ordinary 
soils are in time impoverished of the natural 
supply of available phosphates unless a portion 

* " It has been well established that the salts of phosphoric 
acid — ox phosphates — are the only source from which phosphorus 
of plants can be derived." — Bulletin 94, Maryland Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 




FIU. 2S. — lUBERCLES ON VELVET BEAN PKUDUCED BY INOCULATION. 



83 



84 AGRICULTURE. 

of that taken up by repeated crops, particularly 
of grain, is in some way returned to the soil. 
This plant-food (phosphate) also will be further 
discussed under " Fertilizers." 

(2) Potassium. — Pure potassium is a silvery 
white metal, but it does not exist in nature un- 
combined with other elements. Potassium com- 
pounds are important ingredients in the forma- 
tion of starch in the leaves and the transference 
of starch to the fruit. Since starch is so impor- 
tant in the formation of wood, it follows that 
the salts of potassium are essential to the devel- 
opment of the firm, woody tissue of the stems. 
Potassium forms the base of the acids of fruits 
and over half the ash of fruits. It is particularly 
necessary to fruit and root crops. It is also 
found in the juices of plants which are somewhat 
acid, where it neutralizes a part of such acids — 
as, citric, tartaric, and oxalic — by forming the 
salts of these acids. Potassium forms a large 
per cent, of the wood of fruit-trees. 

C— FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. 

A fertile soil "contains all the material req- 
uisite for the nutrition of plants in the required 
quantity and in the proper form." That is, all 
the materials for the nutrition of plants not de- 
rived from the air are contained in a fertile 
soil. 

One must know whether the food elements 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 85 

of the desired crop are present in the soil. This 
question can be answered by chemical analyses 
of plants and of soils. 

I. Chemical Analysis of Soils. 

If the required elements for a certain crop 
are not present in the soil they must be sup- 
plied by a fertilizer, or some other crop sown. 

But if chemical analysis does show the neces- 
sary elements to be present, it does not satis- 
factorily answer the question as to whether that 
food is available for the use of the plant ; that 
is, whether conditions are such that the plant 
can and will use this food. 

As has already been shown, the chemical 
composition of the rock from which the soil 
is obtained, the texture, drainage, temperature, 
tillage, ventilation, and water content of the 
soil — which determine the delicate and little- 
understood life processes of the plant— all are 
factors in the productiveness of the soil. 

There are so many conditions, then, that enter 
into the productiveness of the soil which chem- 
ical analysis cannot take into account that it is 
generally of little practical use to the farmer. 

II. Vegetation Experiments. 

These are of much value in determining just 
what fertilizer is needed, but they require time. 
If, however, the farmer will do as the United 
States Department of Agriculture advises. 



86 AGRICULTURE. 

"make his farm an experiment station," he can 
solve these problems from year to year without 
much loss of time and land, and with great 
profit. 

The food elements most apt to be lacking in 
ordinary soils are nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
potassium. The appearance of the plants (see 
page 80) often indicates their specific needs. 
But one may find out more definitely by apply- 
ing one kind of fertilizer — as, sulphate of potash 
— to one plot of a field, and another kind of fer- 
tilizer — as, sodium nitrate or superphosphate of 
lime — to another plot, and a complete fertilizer, 
or mixture of the three (see page 94), upon a 
third plot, and comparing results carefully with 
those of a plot to which no fertilizer has been 
added. The next year the whole field may be 
treated with the particular fertilizer which the 
results of these experiments show is needed. If 
other conditions are right a heavy yield maybe ex- 
pected. These experiments may show the need of 
one or of all three of the fertilizers^nitrate, phos- 
phate, or potash ; or it may be that none of them 
increase the yield, when one must look to other 
conditions of soil, or plant, to solve the difficulty. 

III. Fertilization of the Soil. 

I . Commercial Fertilizers. 
(i) Nitrogenous Compounds. — The nitro- 
genous compounds used as commercial fertilizers 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 87 

are obtained from animal, mineral, and vegetable 
sources, but the source of fertilizers has nothing 
whatever to do with their value as such. The 
value depends upon the form in which a fer- 
tilizer contains the particular plant-food desired. 
The nitropfen, if wanted for the immediate use 
of the plant, is best in the form of a nitrate, 
since it is soluble, and may be better distributed 
through the soil to the feeding roots, and is 
readily taken up by them. 

Ammonia is the next nitrogeneous plant-food 
in order as regards availability. Some plants 
can use ammonium salts, which are soluble in 
water, and thus are easily distributed through- 
out the soil to the roots. As a rule, however, 
the salts of ammonia are changed into nitrates 
(see " Nitrifying Bacteria "), which is done very 
rapidly in the soil before being used by plants. 

Animal or vegetable products cannot furnish 
available nitrogen to plants until decomposition 
takes place; hence the more rapid the decay of 
an organic fertilizer the more readily available 
is its nitrogen, since it must first be converted 
into ammonia and then into nitrates. (See 
"Nitrifying Bacteria.") 

Amone the fertilizers of animal orisfin, which 
are largely used on account of their rapid decay 
and comparative inexpensiveness, are : dried 
blood, dried meat and fish, hoof-meal, and guano. 
Others — as, wool, hair, and leather — decay more 



88 AGRICULTURE. 

slowly, and hence the nitrogen Is very slowly 
available. 

One of the best vegetable nitrogenous fertil- 
izers is cottonseed-meal. It is largely used in 
the South, but its usefulness as a food for cattle 
makes it too expensive, in many cases, for a fer- 
tilizer. Castor pomace, obtained as a waste 
product in extracting the oil from the castor 
bean, is of no value as a food, and decays 
rapidly in the soil, hence makes a useful and in- 
expensive fertilizer, though it contains only 
about one-half as great a per cent, of nitrogen 
as chemically pure sodium nitrate. 

Mineral Sources. — Soluble nitrate is com- 
monly obtained as nitrate of soda, or "Chile 
saltpeter," which is found in deposits in the rain- 
less regions of the Peruvian coast. It contains 
a large per cent, of common salt, but when 
purified, as prepared for commerce, it Is 95 
per cent., or more, pure sodium nitrate 
(NaNO,), and about 15 or 16 per cent, of this is 
nitrogen. 

Sulphate of ammonia, (NH4)2S04, is formed 
from coal as waste material in the manufacture 
of gas and coke, also from the dry distillation 
of animal bone in the making of bone-black. 
It generally contains about 20 per cent, of 
nitrogen, making It the richest in nitrogen of 
any of the commercial fertilizers. It is quick 
to act, and is readily distributed in the soil, and, 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 89 

considering its concentrated form, is compara- 
tively inexpensive. 

(2) Phosphorous Compounds. — The com- 
pounds of phosphorus with Hme, magnesia, iron, 
and alumina are widely distributed in the soils, 
but they are insoluble in water, and hence are 
so slowly available as to be insufficient to fur- 
nish the necessary supply for repeated crops. 

Phosphate of lime is the compound used most 
in the manufacture of commercial fertilizers. 
The mineral or rock calcium phosphate, or ani- 
mal phosphates — as, bone-black and bone-ash, or 
animal bone — is treated with sulphuric acid 
(H2SOJ, in order to render the insoluble tri- 
calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO^),„ soluble. The sol- 
uble phosphate made from the bone-black or 
bone ash is best, because more of the phosphate 
may be converted into a soluble form. It makes 
a fine, dry, easily handled fertilizer. The insol- 
uble, or tri-calcium phosphate, is treated with 
sulphuric acid, and a large per cent, of it is 
rendered soluble by two parts of the lime 
uniting with the sulphuric acid to form gypsum 
(2CaS04). This mixture of gypsum * and the 
soluble phosphate (mono-calcium phosphate) is 
sold as a fertilizer under the name of super- 
phosphate of lime. It is probable also that 
some of the tri-calcium phosphate loses only 
one part of the lime and becomes di-calcium 

* Remsen's Inorganic Chemistry, p. 328. 



90 AGRICULTURE. 

phosphate, which is not soluble in pure water, 
but is soluble in the acid soil waters and the 
acids exuded by the rootlets, and is, therefore, 
available to plants. So that the mono-calcium 
and di-calcium phosphates contained in a com- 
mercial fertilizer together are called the "avail- 
able phosphoric acid" (see Table). Mono-cal- 
cium phosphate is immediately available to 
plants, and will give quick returns ; but that 
which remains in the soil changes to the di-cal- 
cium, or reverted form, which is precipitated as 
a fine powder, and is easily dissolved through 
the acid reaction of the roots. 

The supply for manufacturing these fertilizers 
comes largely from South Carolina, which has, 
perhaps, the richest deposits of rock phosphates 
in the world. Other valuable deposits are found 
in Florida, consisting not only of phosphates of 
lime, but also of phosphates of iron and alumina. 
Still others are found in Tennessee, Pennsyl- 
vania, and Virginia. 

Bone-black is obtained by heating animal 
bones in the absence of air, when the gases and 
oily matters are driven off, and charred bone or 
bone charcoal is left. This is used for refining 
sugar ; when it is of no further use for this pur- 
pose it is sold as a fertilizer. In this form, 
however, it is slowly soluble, and of little prac- 
tical value. When bone-black is treated with 
sulphuric acid a much greater per cent, of sol- 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 91 

uble phosphate is found than when the mineral, 
or rock phosphate, is thus treated. In this form 
it is called "dissolved bone-black," and is a val- 
uable fertilizer. 

Other commercial fertilizers containing phos- 
phorus, with their comparative values, are given 
in the table. 

(3) Potassium Compounds. — The potassium 
in the soil is largely in the form of insoluble sili- 
cates. The potassium salts of mineral origin 
used as commercial fertilizers are nearly all ob- 
tained from German mines ; those most common 
are the sulphate, muriate, and kainit — a mixture 
of several salts, as sodium, potassium, and mag- 
nesium sulphates and muriates. All of these 
are available for the use of the plant, since they 
are soluble in water. Pure potassium sulphate 
contains about 54 per cent, of potassium oxide, 
but the composition of the commercial article 
varies, some o-rades containino- not more than 
30 per cent. The muriate of potassium (KCl) 
of commerce contains about 52 per cent, of 
potassium. 

Ashes resulting from burning wood, cotton- 
seed hulls, and tobacco stems contain from 5 
to 30 per cent, of potassium carbonate. The 
amount of potassium carbonate (K^CO,) in ashes 
depends upon the kind and quality of the wood, 
the intensity of the heat in burning, and their 
protection from moisture. Ashes also contain 



92 



AGRICULTURE. 



from I to 4 per cent, of phosphates, and from 
30 to 40 per cent, of calcium carbonate. Good 
wood ashes not only furnish available plant-food, 
but improve the physical condition of the soil. 
Coal ashes are of no use as a fertilizer. 



(4) TABLE I. 

SHOWING THE COMPOSITION OF SOME OF THE 

PRINCIPAI, COMMERCIAI^ FER'I'II^IZING MATERIALS.* 



CONSTITUENT. 


t 
1 








1 


■2 


I. Supplying Nitrogen. 


Per 
cent. 

15.5-16 
19.0-20.5 
12.0-14 
10 O-II 
5.0-6 


Per 
cent. 


Per 

cent. 


Per 

cent. 


Per 

cent. 


Per 

cent. 


Sulphate of ammonia . . 

Dried blood (high grade) . 

Dried blood ( low grade) . 

Castor pomace . ..... 

2. Supplying Phosphoric 
A cid. 

Bone-black superphos- 
phate (dissolved bone- 
black) 
















3-0-5 
I. 0-1.5 

17-18 
20-25 
22-29 

15-17 






15-17 
5-S 
6-9 

13-15 


1- 2 

15-17 
16-20 

2- 3 


. 1-1-5 . 




Ground bone 

Steamed bone 

Dissolved bone 

3. Supplying Potash 
Muri'jte of potash .... 
Sulphate of potash (high 


2.5- 4-5 
1.5- 2.5 
2.0- 3 














50 

48-52 
1 2-12.5 

2-8 

1-2 

5-8 


45-48 
•5-I.5 












33-32 










1-2 

I-I-5 

3-5 














Tobacco steins 


2.0- 3 















The above table shows the comparative 
values of the most important commercial fertil- 
izers as food for plants. The amount of these 



* Adapted from Year-book, 1902, p. 571. 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 93 

fertilizers required varies upon different soils 
and for different plants.* 

The smallest amounts of direct fertilizers to 
the acre, which will give satisfactory returns, are 
ID pounds of nitrogen, 15 pounds of available 
phosphoric acid, and 20 pounds of potash. By 
comparison with the above table the amount of 
the co7iii)iercial fertilizer required may be ob- 
tained. 

Exercise 3. — How much nitrate of soda will be needed 
for an acre if 10 pounds of nitrogen be required? (See 
Table I.) 

How much sulphate of ammonia? 

How much dried blood (high grade)? 

How many pounds of tobacco stems? 

How many pounds of phosphoric acid and of potash 
in tobacco stems which furnislies 10 pounds of nitrogen? 

How many pounds of bone-black superphosphate will 
it take to furnish 15 pounds of available pliosphoric acid? 
How many pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid will 
this bone-black contain ? 

How many pounds of sulphate of potash will it take 
to furnish 20 pounds of potash? How much kainit ? 
How much (unleached) wood ashes? How much phos- 
phoric acid contained in the wood ashes ? 

For indoor plants, again, the amount of the 
fertilizer must be governed by the kind of soil 
and species of plant, for what is a "balanced 
ration " % for one kind of plant is not for another. 

*" It is unsafe to use chemical fertilizers or liquid manures in 
full strength on a heavy soil, which is not provided with suffi- 
cient fibrous material." — Year-book, 1902, p. 558. 



94 AGRICULTURE. 

The following estimate * may be helpful, but 
practical experience is tJie only safe guide as to 
which plant-food and how much is needed: 
Nitrate of soda, 6 to lo ounces, in 50 gallons of 
water to 100 square feet;f sulphate, or muriate, 
of potash, 8 to 12 ounces in 50 gallons of water 
to 100 square feet, or wood ashes, 5 pounds to 
100 square feet; calcium superphosphate, i 
pound in 50 gallons of water to 100 square 
feet. Whichever fertilizer is needed should be 
used every ten days, or two weeks, in watering 
the plants. 

For mixed, or so-called "complete fertilizer," 
Voorhees || recommends one-fourth pound of 
nitrate of soda, one pound acid phosphate, and 
one-half pound of muriate of potash for 100 
square feet. But some think this a little too 
much. {See also " Plant Improvement.") 

The kind of fertilizer, as to its slow or rapid 
availability, to be used depends upon whether 
the object desired is to slightly enrich the soil 
for a period of years or to increase the yield of 
the immediate crop. 

The time of application would depend upon 
the kind of fertilizer and the object of its use. 



* This estimate was given for roses in the Year-book, igo2, and 
is meant only as an example. 

f " After the second or third application, a dressing of lime — 
5 lbs. to 100 square feet — may follow." — Year-book, 1902, p. 557. 

\Fertilizers, by Voorhees, p. 327. 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 95 

If wanted for the immediate use of the plant, it 
must necessarily be soluble, and, consequently, 
should not be applied in the fall but in the 
spring, when the crop is ready to use it, else it 
will be leached away and lost. If the more 
slowly available ones are used, they should be 
applied in the fall. 

Hoiu Applied. — Fertilizers must be evenly 
and thoroughly distributed in the soil. For this 
reason it is well to mix concentrated fertilizers 
with dust, ashes, or sand. They may then be 
scattered broadcast, and plowed or harrowed in, 
or drilled in. Those which are readily soluble 
may be simply distributed over the surface, as 
the rains will carry them into the soil. 

When sJioiild eominercial fertilizers be used? 
Not until all home resources are exhaiisted 
should a farmer buy fertilizers. Proper prepara- 
ation of the soil by drainage and tillage, attention 
to rotation of crops, taking care that legumi- 
nous plants constitute at least one crop in four, 
so that particular elements will not be exhausted 
by continuous drain upon them, will do much 
toward keeping up the yield afforded by the 
soil. But this is not enough ; all must not be 
taken out and nothing put in. However, if all 
waste products on the farm are utilized, there 
will be little need of expending much money for 
commercial fertilizers. 

(5) Lime. — Plants need lime. It tends to 



96 AGRICULTURE. 

make them more compact, and aids in the pro- 
duction of grain or fruit. Especially is it helpful 
to leguminous plants, grains, and grasses ; but 
it is of much less value to corn, and may be 
even injurious to potatoes, blackberries, redtop, 
and millet. Lime neutralizes part of the acid 
in plants forming salts, as the calcium oxalate 
of beet leaves ; but its most important action is 
that of an iiidii^ect fertilizer. It benefits the 
soil as to its physical condition, tending to make 
clayey soils more porous and light, and sandy 
soils more compact. 

Lime changes the chemical constituents of 
the soil. It is in this action that it brings an 
increased yield to the immediate crop ; for by 
chemical action upon organic matter, hastening 
its decomposition, and upon the insoluble potas- 
sium and phosphorus compounds in the soil, it 
renders them available to the plant. While this 
would tend to produce heavier crops, the con- 
tinued use of lime, or gypsum, would help to 
exhaust the soil of its natural plant-food by the 
increased drain made upon it through the greater 
yield. 

Lime neutralizes the acidity of the soil. 
Through root-action of some plants, or through 
the formation of acids by the decomposition of 
organic matter and consequent formation of 
humous and humic acids, or through the exces- 
sive use of fertilizers, or by leaching, the soil 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 97 

may become so strongly acid in its character as 
to be unfavorable or unproductive to certain 
valuable species of plants. This condition may 
exist not only on swampy or peaty soils, but 
also upon well-drained soils. Soil may be easily 
tested for acid by thoroughly moistening it and 
placing in it a strip of blue litmus paper. If the 
color of the litmus paper is changed to red the 
acid of the soil is too strong for plant growth, 
and the addition of lime will prove beneficial. 

Another way in which the need of lime in a 
soil in shown is by the plants which it will nat- 
urally produce. Plants known to be character- 
istic of acid soils are : bird's-foot violet ( Viola 
pedata), wild or beard grass (^Andropogon scopa- 
riiis), wood-rush (^Liiziila campestris), and, as 
soon as the soil is cultivated, the common sorrel 
[Rinnex acetosella), while those plants which are 
unable to make any satisfactory growth upon 
such soils are the red clover, lettuce, beets, tim- 
othy, and spinach.* 

Exercise 4. — {a) Collect small samples of soil from 
various places where tlie vegetation might lead one to 
suspect the presence of acid soil. 

{U) These samples of soil should be taken from about 
two to four inches below the surface, and each sample 
carefully labeled as to exact location from which it was 
obtained. 

{c) These samples should be taken to the laboratory, 



* Roberts' Fertility of the Soil, p. 318. 



98 AGRICULTURE. 

and tested for acid vv'th blue litmus paper. If need be, 
leave the litmus paper covered in the soil over night. 

(d) If any soils turn the litmus paper red. the class 
should visit that particular place, or places, where the 
acid soils were found, and study the vegetation, making 
a list of the plants found growing there, and examine 
the conditions, to discover, if possible, the cause of the 
acidity. Is the drainage good ? The ventilation ? Is 
the place densely shaded ? What is the texture of the 
soil "■ Is it a humous, loamy, clayey, or sandy soil ? 
Could the conditions be improved? How? 

(<?) Collect a sufficient quantity to fill several small 
pots with this soil, and try to grow some plant which is 
averse to acid soil — as, clover, lettuce, or timothy. To 
one pot add lime in small but definite quantities, thor- 
oughly mix, and let stand for a few days. Test again 
witli litmus; if still acid, add lime until the litmus is no 
longer affected, and then try to grow the same kind of a 
plant as in the pot of acid soil, starting them both at 
the same time and keeping them under similar condi- 
tions. 

(/) Compare the growth made by the two plants, and 
record your observations and conclusions. 

Not only does lime sometimes prove benefi- 
cial to plant growth, but it is also beneficial to 
the development of the nitrifying bacteria of the 
soil, which for some reason thrive best in a 
mildly alkaline soil (see " Clover Sick Soil.") 
Lime and wood -ashes aid nitrification by fur- 
nishing calcium and potassium to unite with the 
nitric acid formed by the bacteria. Lime is also 
helpful in keeping in check certain injurious in- 
sects and fungi, though the potato scab (a fun- 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 99 

gOLis growth) seems to develop more rapidly 
when this crop is preceded by liming. 

One form of calcium — the sulphate, called 
land plaster or gypsum — fixes ammonia, while 
lime drives it off. Hence this is exceedingly 
useful for sprinkling in the trenches of stables, 
or upon the surface of compost heaps, to prevent 
the escape of the ammonia. For use in connec- 
tion with manure, no other form but the sulphate 
(gypsum) should be used. It is also best for an 
indirect fertilizer — that is, for renderinof the 
present but unavailable plant-food available. 

For neutralizing acids, calcium oxide (CaO), 
or quicklime, is the best form to use. It must 
be slaked a short time before using. It may be 
placed in heaps and water sprinkled over it, and 
then covered with soil for a few days. It should 
be free from lumps, spread or drilled evenly, 
and harrowed in at once. This form is also a 
cheap and very good indirect fertilizer. 

Another method of indirect fertilizing is by 
the judicious use of cover crops (see " Legumin- 
ous Plants" and " Rotation of Crops"). Plant 
roots not only make mineral plant-foods more 
easily available, but prevent them from being 
leached out by the winter rains and snows. 

2. Stable Compost. 

As has been said, green manuring is expensive, 
since the crop may be fed to stock, and if the 
stable compost is properly cared for and returned 



100 AGRICULTURE. 

to the soil a large per cent, of the important 
food elements taken up from the soil by the 
plants will be restored to the soil. For it must 
be remembered that this compost not only con- 
tains the indigestible food elements, but also the 
broken-down or worn out animal tissues. 

(i) Value in Furnishing Plant-food. — 
The amount and kind of the elements of plant- 
food found in stable compost depend upon the 
kind of food ^' fed to stock, and the age and 
kind of stock to which it is fed, and the care 
taken of the compost. Mature animals (except 
milch cows) return, sooner or later, nearly all of 
the fertilizing f elements of the food in the 
waste discharged, while only one-half or two- 
thirds is returned by young and rapidly growing 
animals. Fattening cattle return from 85 to 90 
per cent. 

Roberts estimates the commercial value of 
the fertilizing materials found in the compost of 
different farm animals as varying from $2.43 to 
$4.25 per ton, rating the nitrogen contained at 
15 cents, phosphoric acid at 7^ cents, and potash 
at 45 cents per pound. He also states that in 
many cases the " computed value of the waste 
is nearly one-half the cost of the food"; but 
adds, " this value can seldom be realized when 



* See Table, p. I34- 

f Henry's Feeds and Feeding, p. 270. 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 101 

the compost is applied to the land."* However, 
if the real value reaches one-half of the com- 
puted value it is of too great value to be thrown 
away. 

(2) Shameful Waste.— The way in which 
this valuable fertilizer is allowed to stand ex- 
posed to the weather, allowing by far the most 
valuable elements of plant-food to be leached 
out and drained away down the hillside, only to 
pollute the water accessible to the stock or to 
contaminate the air, and to serve as a breeding- 
place for flies and disease germs, is shameful 
waste if not criminal carelessness. 

Many farmers allow this fertilizer to be 
hauled away to increase the yield of the crops 
of a more thrifty neighbor, or even burn it to 
get it out of the way. And this in the face of 
the fact that there is no more vital problem in 
the world to-day than that of maintaining or 
improving the fertility of the soil. As popula- 
tion increases this question assumes momentous 
importance. Already in the " old world " it is 
found that the soil is not able to supply a sub- 
sistence for the population. All the food, cloth- 
ing, and shelter for all animals, including man, 
must come directly or indirectly from the soil. 
When this soil is exhausted through the care- 
lessness of man, where will this same man 
appease his hunger or obtain a sustenance? 

* Roberts' Fertility of the Land, p. 143. 



102 AGRICULTURE. 

(3) Effects Upon the Soil. — Stable compost 
not only enriches the soil by supplying plant- 
food (being especially rich in nitrogenous com- 
pounds), but it very materially improves the 
physical condition of the soil. It changes the 
potash, phosphate, and lime present in the soil 
into more readily available forms, and favors 
the development of the nitrifying bacteria. The 
effects of stable compost are more lasting than 
those of any other fertilizer on account of its 
uniting with the elements of the soil to form 
humates, which are changed to available forms 
by the nitrifying bacteria. The liquid in stable 
compost contains valuable plant-food in a sol- 
uble form; hence, free use of bedding should be 
made to absorb and retain these liquids. A 
mixture of dried muckj and marlj (when easily 
obtained) makes a good absorbent, and will prove 
beneficial to a sandy soil. Gypsum is valuable 
in fixing the ammonia contained in these liquids, 
and should be sprinkled in the trenches or over 
the compost heaps for this purpose. 

(4) Protection and Application of the 
Compost. — Covered barn-yards (Fig. 29) pre- 
vent the loss of the compost by scattering and 
leaching,* at the same time affording warmer 
quarters for the stock in winter and cooler in 
summer. 



* Roberts' Fertilily of the Soil. 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 



103 



Some successful farmers advocate the re- 
moval of the compost from the stable directly 
to the field. Others place it in covered heaps, 
or bins, and sprinkle with gypsum. Fresh com- 
post acts injuriously with some crops.'^ 

Fairly well-rotted manure may be harrowed 




FIG. 2g. — A COVKKKU BARN-YARD. 



in in the fall or late summer, but if sufficiently 
rotted to be available, it may be applied in the 
spring. 

Plants may be overfed as well as underfed, 



* Year-book, IQOI, p. 171. 



104 AGRICULTURE. 

SO frequent, light applications are better than 
heavy ones at long intervals."^ 

It would be well to occasionally add to every 
ton of compost applied to the soil from fifty to 
one hundred pounds of superphosphate, and 
twenty-five to fifty pounds of sulphate of potash 
(high grade), or sufficient wood ashes to supply 
the same amount of potash (see Table I.). 

For potted plants, or in soil used for vegetables 
or flowers, the water leached from stable com- 
post and diluted may be used (see page 256) in 
watering the plants to supply the fertilizer. 

One ton of stable compost in good condition 
contains about ten pounds of nitrogen, five 
pounds of phosphoric acid, and ten pounds of 
potassium. 

Z>.— REFERENCES. 

" The Fertility of the Land." Roberts. 1900. 10. 

" Fertilizers." Voorhees. 1900. 10. 

" Phosphates." Bulletin 94, Maryland Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station. 

" Field Experiments with Nitrate of Soda." Bulletin 164, New 
Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. 

" System of Farm Management." Year-book, 1901. 

" Relation of Nutrition to the Health of Plants." Year-book, 
1901. 



* " We may take it as a general rule that plants with leathery 
leaves, with hard and narrow leaves, and with hard wood, re- 
quire more dilute solutions than those with large, soft, and ex- 
panded leaves. During the period of leaf formation all plants 
can do with the greatest amount of nutritive matter." — Vear- 
book, 1901, p. 172. 



THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 105 

"Soils." Bulletin 41, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment 
Station. 

"Chemistry of Plants, Plant Foods, and Soils." Bulletin 94, 
New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 

" Fertilizers for Special Crops." Year-book, 1902. 

" Commercial Fertilizers." Bulletin 99, Vermont Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

" Potash and Its Function in Agriculture." Year-book, 1896. 

" Soil Ferments Important in Agriculture." Year-book; 1^95. 
' Humus in Its Relation to Soil Fertility." Year-book, 1895. 



o 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER V. 

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 

^.—LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS NITROGEN 
GATHERERS. 

I. Nitrogen -fixing Bacteria. 
II. Inoculation of the Soil. 
III. Other Conditions. 

^.—LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS SOIL RENO- 
VATORS. 

I. As Deep Feeders. 

1 . Media nica I A ction . 

2. Chemical Action. 

II. For Green Manuring. 

C— LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS FOOD. 

I. High per cent, of Digestible Crude Protein. 
II. Table of Comparisons. 
III. Not Lacking in Carbohydrates. 

Z>.-SPECIFIC CASES. 

I. Red Clover. 
II. Crimson Clover. 

III. Alfalfa. 

IV. Cow-peas. 
V. Soy-beans. 

^.—REFERENCES. 

107 



CHAPTER V. 

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 

From the foregoing chapters the student 
should have an understanding of the fact that 
the food of plants must contain certain ele- 
ments, and that these food elements must be 
obtained from the air or as soluble material 
from the soil, so that they can be absorbed by 
the roots. 

One of the most important elements is nitro- 
gen (see Chapter IV^.). It is found in the pro- 
toplasm of every plant cell. The nitrogenous 
compounds in the plant, taken as a whole, are 
called crude protein. No plant can live without 
a supply of nitrogenous food. 

Now if this nitrogen is to be obtained from 
the soil, and since the plant requires so great a 
proportion of it, it will be easily seen that the 
supply in ordinary soils would in time be ex- 
hausted unless some means were taken to 
replenish it. This is usually done by the appli- 
cation of a fertilizer — some salt of nitrogen, 
which is the most expensive of fertilizers. 



log 



110 AGRICULTURE. 

y^.— LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS NITROGEN 
GATHERERS. 

I. Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria. 

In recent years it has been discovered (see 
foot-note, p. 32) that certain plants, through 
their intimate relation with other low plant 
forms, bacteria, are able to obtain nitrogen from 
the inexhaustible supply of the air. The exact 
relation existino- between these soil bacteria and 
the roots of leguminous plants is not fully under- 
stood. But it has been proven by many experi- 
ments that wherever the bacteria which work 
upon a particular species of plant are present- — 
which is shown by the nodules upon the roots 
(Fig. 31) — the plant is able to make a luxu- 
riant growth without the addition of nitrogen- 
ous fertilizers, providing, of course, that other 
necessary conditions are present. 

II. Inoculation of the Soil. 

It sometimes happens that the particular spe- 
cies of bacteria which works upon a certain 
species of leguminous plant is not present in 
the soil. In this case the plant — vetch, for ex- 
ample — has no nodules upon its roots (Fig. 
30), is weak and sickly, and a profitable crop 
cannot be obtained unless heavy applications of 
nitrogenous fertilizers are made, which would 
entail considerable expense, or the soil of this 
field be inoculated with the bacteria which work 




FIG. 30. — COMPARISON OF VETCH PLANTS. 
Grown upon inoculated and uniiioculated soil. 



110 
i- X^ 



AGRICULTURE. 



upon this vetch. This inoculation may be done 
by a light application of the soil in which these 
bacteria are known to be. Their presence is 
indicated by the luxuriant growth of the vetch 




FIG. 31. — ROOTS OK YELLOW SOY-BEAN. 
Grown at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station in 1896, on land inocu- 
lated with an extract containing the tubercle-forming bacteria. 



and the presence of nodules on its roots (see 
Fig. 30). If any considerable area is to be in- 
oculated, this method of inoculation is too ex- 
pensive to be practical, as it requires from 500 
to 1,000 pounds of soil to an acre. 

Recently, through investigations in the labo- 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 1 L3 

ratory of Plant Physiology, the Department of 
Agriculture at Washington has shown that "the 
bacteria, when grown upon nitrogen-free media 
will retain their high activity if they are care- 
fully dried out and then revived in a liquid 
medium at the end of varying lengths of time. 
By using some absorbent which will soak up 
millions of the tubercle-forming organisms, and 
then by allowing these cultures to become dry, 
the bacteria can be sent to any part of the 
United States or the world, and yet arrive in 
perfect condition. Of course, it is necessary to 
revive the dry germs by immersion in water, 
and, with the addition of certain nutrient salts, 
the original number of bacteria is greatly in- 
creased if allowed to stand for a short time. 
Frequently twenty-four hours are suf^cient to 
cause the water in a pail to turn milky white 
with the number of organisms formed in that 
time. Thus, by sending out a dry culture sim- 
ilar to a yeast cake, and no larger in size, the 
original number of nitrogen-fixing bacteria may 
be multiplied sufficiently to inoculate at least an 
acre of land. The amount of material thus ob- 
tained is limited only by the quantity of the 
nutrient water solution used in increasing the 
germs. It is evident, therefore, that the cost of 
inoculating the land is very small." The dry cul- 
tures may be obtained from the United States 
Department of Agriculture without cost. 



114 AGRICULTURE. 

" The way in which the Hquid culture may be 
introduced into the soil varies somewhat with 
the character of the seed to be used and the 
area of the field to be treated. With large seed 
it is often more convenient to simply soak them 
in the fluid, or moisten them with it, and then, 
after they are sufficiently dry, to sow them in 
the ordinary way. In other cases it is frequently 
more feasible to introduce the liquid culture 
directly into the soil. This may be done by 
spraying, or perhaps a simpler method is to mix 
the culture thoroughly with a wagon-load of 
earth, and then to distribute and harrow this in, 
just as a fertilizer would be handled."* 

III. Other Conditions. 

It may be possible that some condition of the 
soil prevents the healthy growth of the species 
of bacteria. They require an abundant supply 
of air (see "Tillage") and plenty of moisture, 
though this should not be present in sufficient 
quantities to prevent the free circulation of the 
air. They will not thrive in an acid soil; hence, 
if difficulty is found in growing leguminous 
crops, it would be well to give the soil a light 
application of lime if it is not known to already 
contain it. 



* Year-book, United States Department of Agriculture, 1902, 
P- 341. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 



115 



^.— LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS 
SOIL RENOVATORS. 

I. As Deep Feeders. 

Leguminous plants also have 
the advantage of being deep 
feeders ; hence, they require a 
subsoil which they can pene- 
trate, and alfalfa, in particular, 
cannot be successfully grown if 
the soil is underlaid with rock 
or hard-pan. 

The roots of these plants 
thus improve the soil in two 
ways : 

1 . By Mechanical Action they 
loosen the subsoil, making it 
more easily penetrated by water, 
and by subsequently formed 
roots; and, 

2. Chemically, by bringing 
up from below quantities of the 
salts of phosphorus and potas- 
sium, as well as obtaining, 
through the bacteria, a rich 
supply of nitrogen from the air. 
Large amounts of these ele- 
ments, by the decay of these 
roots and the stubble, are pre- 
pared for the use of subsequent 
crops of surface-feeding plants. 




a 



FIG. 32. 

ALFALFA PLANT. 

lyong root-system. 



116 AGRICULTURE. 

II. For Green Manuring, 

or plowing under for fertilizing, the leguminous 
plants, such as the red, white, or the crimson 
clover, cow-peas, and soy-beans, are of more 
value than other crops, since they are compara- 
tively rich in phosphorus and potash, and fur- 
nish a supply of nitrogenous compounds, the 
nitrogen of which is obtained, through their re- 
lation with certain bacteria, from the air, thus 
not impoverishing the soil. Green manuring 
with leguminous plants, while very effective, can 
hardly be afforded, except for the purpose of 
building up worn-out, or poor, soil, since legu- 
minous hay is so valuable as feed (Chapter I.). 
At the same time more than half of the fertiliz- 
ing elements may be given back to the soil in 
stable manure if rightly cared for and applied. 

C— LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS FOOD. 

I. Digestible Crude Protein 

is absolutely essential to the upbuilding of the 
tissues of the animal body in repairing broken- 
down tissues. It has been proven by repeated 
experiments that a ration which contains a large 
per cent, of digestible crude protein gives the 
best results for the least money in the produc- 
tion of milk, and in contributing to a vigorous 
and healthful growth of the young. It has been 
ascertained by analysis, as shown by the follow- 
ing table of comparisons, that the per cent, of 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 



117 



protein contained in the hay of leguminous 
plants is more than double that in the same 
weight of the hay of grasses. 

II.— TABLE OF COMPARISONS.* 

DIGESTIBI,E NUTRIENTS AND FERTII^IZING CONSTITUENTS. 



NAME OF FEED. 



Hay 

Timothy 

Redtop 

Kentucky l.lu^-grass 
Red clover, :nedium 
White clover .... 
Crimson clover . . 

Alfalfa 

Cow-pea 






Lbs. 

86.8 
91. 1 
788 
847 
90.3 
90.4 
91.6 
893 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRI- 
ENTS IN 100 POUNDS. 



2. 



Lbs. 

2.8 
48 
4.8 
6.S 

II 5 
10.5 
1 i.o 
108 



Lbs. 

43-4 
46.9 
37 3 
358 
42.2 
34.9 
39-6 
38.6 



1^ 



Lbs. 

1.4 
i.o 
2.0 
1-7 
I..S 



FERTILIZING CONSTIT- 
UENTS IN 1,000 POUNDS. 



^ 


^•^:^ 


<i 




JS « ^ 




^ 


'^^g'^ 




^ 




(^ 



Lbs. 

12.6 
1 1.5 
II. 9 
20.7 
27-5 
20.5 
21.9 
19-5 



Lbs. 

5-3 
3.6 
4.0 
3.8 

?.2 
4.0 

5-1 
5 2 



Lbs 

9.0 
10.2 

157 
22.0 
18. 1 
13- 1 
16.8 

14.7 



When it is considered that the majority of 
leguminous plants yield two or more crops an- 
nually, it will be seen that they supply from two 
to four times as much protein per acre as the 
grasses. Of the nitrogen contained in this pro- 
tein, it should again be emphasized that a large 
proportion of it is obtained from the air, through 
the relation of these plants with the bacteria, 
and thus the soil is not deprived of its supply 
of nitrogen, as is the case with other forage 
plants ; hence, no expensive nitrogenous fertili- 
zer will be required to replenish the soil of fields 
sown with leguminous crops. 

* Adapted from Henry's Feeds arid Feeding. 



118 AGRICULTURE. 

III. Not Lacking in Carbohydrates. 

It will also be seen from the table that the 
leguminous hay only lacks about 5 per cent, of 
being as rich in the heat-producing elements, 
carbohydrates and ether extract, as the hay of 
grasses. On the other hand, it will require in 
most cases no supplementary nitrogenous food 
in the form of expensive meals as wheat shorts, 
gluten meal, and cottonseed-meal, as does the 
hay of grasses. 

Leguminous plants are valuable, then, in that 
(i) they do not exhaust the soil of its nitrogen, 
but may be made (through their relation with 
the bacteria) to add to the soil's supply of 
nitrogen from that of the air; (2) they are deep 
feeders, and bring up from below and deposit 
near the surface other kinds of plant-food; (3) 
they make a more economical food than grasses; 
(4) that the manure from such crops makes a 
better fertilizer than that obtained by feeding 
the hay of grasses. 

i).— SPECIFIC CASES. 

I. Red Clover ( TrifoUum pratense) 
need only be mentioned, as it is already well 
known and its value recognized. It is widely 
grown in the Northern and Eastern States, but 
is not generally grown so successfully in the 
South and West as other lesfumes. It is best to 
cut it when not more than 20 per cent, of the 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. II9 

blossoms are turning brown, since not only is 
the yield heavier at this time (as the leaves, 
which are the best part of the hay drop off when 
it is riper), but its nutritive value is greatest. 

Clover hay is excellent roughage for sheep, 
cows, and growing stock. The dust detracts 
from its value as roughage for horses, but a 
limited amount may be fed to them in connec- 
tion with other rough food. 

II. Crimson Clover {Trifolium incamahim') , 
though not so valuable for hay as red clover — 
since it is an annual and makes but one crop^ — 
is excellent for green manuring, winter soil 
mulching, and soiling — cutting green and supply- 
ing to the stock in barns and yards. 

It is better adapted to the Southern States, 
as the fall sowing will not stand the severe win- 
ters of the North, nor the drouth of the western 
plains, though fine crops have sometimes been 
obtained outside the Southern States. 

It may be sown in spring or early summer, 
when it matures in late summer or autumn. 
This crop makes a good fall pasture, after which 
it may be plowed under, or if not having been 
allowed to produce seed and it survives the 
winter, it may be used for green food, soiling, 
or as green manuring in the spring. It is, how- 
ever, commonly sown in late summer or early 
fall; where the winters are mild it serves excel- 
lently as a winter soil mulch. 



120 AGRICULTURE. 

In the spring- it may be used as green manur- 
ing for corn or cotton fields, or for soiling or 
spring pastures, or it may be allowed to grow 
for hay ; but it nitist be cut before it is in full 
bloom, for when the blossoms are fully ripe the 
bristly hairs and the calyx are liable to form 
balls in the stomach or intestines of horses or 
cattle, which cause their death. 

III. Alfalfa (Mcdicago saliva). 

Alfalfa cannot be grown on all soils. It is a 
deep feeder, the roots penetrating the ground 
to a depth of from eight to twenty-five feet 
(Fig. 32), and cases have been reported where, in 
loose sandy soils, alfalfa roots have been found 
at a depth of from fifty to sixty feet. 

It must have a subsoil which its roots can 
penetrate. The soil must be well drained and 
well ventilated, so that the nitrogen-fixing 
organisms (bacteria) which work upon its roots 
may be well supplied with nitrogen from the 
air. It thrives best in a soil rich in lime, potash, 
magnesium, and phosphorus — lime being the 
most essential. 

The soil must be thoroughly prepared. A 
field should be selected which is free from the 
seeds of weeds, and plowed thoroughly and 
deeply. If no subsoil plow is to be had, "the best 
substitute is two turning plows, the one follow- 
ing in the furrow made by the other." The Soil 
must then be thoroughly pulverized and made 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 121 

smooth. This prepares the ground, for from 
four to forty years, for three lo five crops per 
year, so the work may well be done with care. 

As soon as there is no more danger of frost 
in the spring the alfalfa seed — which has been 
screened to allow, if present, the fine seeds of 
its worst enemy, the dodder, to pass through 
(see " Purity of Seeds," Chapter IX) — should be 
drilled in thickly (20 to 25 pounds to the acre) 
to keep down the weeds. The field may be en- 
riched occasionally with fertilizers containing 
lime, potash, and phosphoric acid, but no nitro- 
genous fertilizer will be needed. 

The stable compost, when feeding alfalfa, 
makes an excellent fertilizer for surface-feeding 
crops, as the grasses and grains. 

The weeds should be carefully kept down by 
reseeding the spots where the stand is poor, 
and by frequent mowing, if need be, until the 
alfalfa has reached the third year of its growth, 
when the root system will have become strongly 
developed and a good stand may be expected. 

Of all the leguminous plants, alfalfa seems to 
have the greatest number of points in its favor. 
It enriches the soil by bringing up from great 
depths plant-food, and depositing it in its tis- 
sues near and upon the surface. It, in connec- 
tion with the infesting bacteria, gets its supply 
of nitrogen from the air, and stores up large 
quantities of nitrogenous compounds in its tis- 



123 AGRICULTURE. 

sues. It makes excellent pasture for horses and 
hogs ; however, it will not bear too close feed- 
ing, as it does not sprout from the stem but 
from the roots, and the "vitality of the root 
may be impaired if the young stems are grazed 
as fast as they appear." Alfalfa is not a good 
green food for cattle and sheep, as it causes 
them to bloat, though it is believed by some 
that if a supply of dry roughage is put where 
they can get it while feeding on alfalfa and 
clover pasture, that stock will not suffer from 
bloating.* Soiling (see " Principles of Feed- 
ing") also may be practiced with alfalfa. There 
is no farm crop of greater value as hay. Alfalfa 
hay is richer in digestible nutrients than red 
clover hay, and from three to five, or as many 
as seven, cuttings may be made from an alfalfa 
field annually. It should be cut fgr hay when 
it first begins to bloom. Alfalfa hay should be 
handled as little as possible to get it into the 
stack or barn, as the leaves, which are the best 
part of the hay, drop off when dry. The hay 
should be sheltered from rains. The second 
crop of alfalfa (in Colorado and similar localities 
the first is used) should be cut for seed, as the 
blossoms ripen more uniformly, and this crop 
seeds better — probably because there are a 
greater number of insects to fertilize the flowers. 



Henry's Feeds and Feeding, p. 201. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 123 

Since alfalfa hay Is exceedingly rich it must 
be supplemented by foods containing the car- 
bohydrates — as, corn fodder, straw, or silage. 
Alfalfa is adapted to a wide range of latitude. 
It has been successfully grown as far north as 
Central New York, Michigan, and Montana, 
and as far south as California, Louisiana, and 
Florida, c.nd it stands the drouth of the western 
plains better than any other forage crop. 
IV. Cow-peas ( Vigna catjang^. 

There are numerous varieties of cow-peas, 
from the "bush-pea" to the prostrate runners, 
with many gradations between them. Their 
season of growth varies from a few weeks to 
several months (see "Variation Induced by En- 
vironmental Changes — Climatic' ). 

Cow-peas will grow on soil which is too poor 
to support clover, and they are excellent soil- 
renewers when plowed under green, and far less 
expensive than commercial fertilizers for worn- 
out or barren soil. This crop is best adapted 
to the South, as it, like that of other beans, is 
very sensitive to frost. Certain varieties, how- 
ever, have been grown as far north as Wiscon- 
sin — also in the New England States, as soiling 
crops. 

Much of the failure in the North has been 
caused by planting when the ground was too 
cold or wet. From the table it will be seen 
that the hay of cow-peas yields a greater per 



124 



AGRICULTURE. 




FIG. 33. — THE COW-PEA. 



cent, of dry matter than that of red clover. It 
is also much richer in the digestible protein. 
In the Gulf States a yield of from four to six 
tons per acre is common. The South Carolina 
Station reported, in 1889, a yield of 3.6 tons to 
the acre. Its analysis showed that it furnished 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 



125 



twice the amount of digestible nutrients as that 
of one acre of oats yielding forty bushels, and 




FIG. 34. — THE SOY-BEAN. 



40 per cent, more than that produced by an acre 
of corn yielding thirty bushels. 

When cow-peas are grown to enrich the soil 
the hay may be fed to stock and the manure 
returned to the field, or the vines may be plowed 
under in the fall, and the field sown in oats, rye. 



126 AGRICULTURE. 

or vetch, to prevent the leaching out of valuable 
fertilizing materials by the rains. 

The seeds make a valuable concentrated food, 
but since, as yet, there is no means of thresh- 
ing them satisfactorily unless gathered by hand, 
it is quite expensive. 

V. The Soy-bean i^Glycmc hispida) 

(Fig. 34) is largely grown in the South, but can 
be grown wherever Indian corn can be grown 
successfully. It feeds heavily upon potash, and 
requires fertilizing with lime, potash, and phos- 
phorus if the soil is poor in these materials. It 
should not be planted until the ground is warm. 
It grows rapidly, and generally requires little 
cultivation. 

The hay is rich in protein. It should be cut 
at the time of, or soon after, blooming. The 
seed yields from twenty-five to forty bushels per 
acre. The beans are rich in protein and oil, 
hence they make a desirable concentrated food 
to be fed in connection with roughage. 

Exercise 5. — {a') Collect specimens of various legu- 
minous plants, taking great care to procure the root 
systems intact. 

(/') Look for tubercles or nodules on the roots. Where 
found ? 

{c) Note the relative size of nodules upon different 
kinds of plants, and upon the same kind of plants 
grown in different soils. 

(^) Do you find any legumes which have no nodules? 
If so, test the soil in which they were grown for acid. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 137 

If any acid is present, what would you advise ? If no 
acid is present, what? 

REFERENCES. 

" Bacteria and the Nitrogen Problem." Year-book, United 
States Department of Agriculture, igo2. 

" Canadian Field-peas." Year-book, 1895. 

"The Relation of Chemistry to the Progress of Agriculture." 
Year-book, 1899. 

"Cow-peas." Year-book, 1896. 

"Leguminous Plants." Farmers' Bulletin, No. 16. United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

" Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food." Farmers' Bulle- 
tin, No. 121, United States Department of Agriculture, 1900. 

" Alfalfa, or Lucern." Farmers' Bulletin, No. 31, United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

" Cow-peas." Farmers' Bulletin, No. 89, United States De- 
partment of Agriculture. 

" Forage Crops." Bulletin, No. 66, Texas Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station. 

" The Soy-bean as a Forage Crop." Farmers' Bulletin, No. 
58, United States Department of Agriculture. 

"Forage Crops." Bulletin, No. 59, Texas Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station. 

" Soil Bacteria in Their Relation to Agriculture." Bulletin 
No. 40, Agricultural Experiment Station, Delaware. 

" The Soy-bean." Bulletin, No. 92, Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Rhode Island. 

"Crimson Clover." Bulletin, No. 44, Virginia Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

" Cowpeas." Bulletin No. 73. Missouri Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER VI. 

PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 

^.—OBJECT OF FEEDING. 

i?.- KINDS OF FOOD. 
I. Nitrogenous Foods. 
II. Carbonaceous Foods. 
III. Other Elements. 

C— COMPARISON OF NITROGENOUS AND 
CARBONACEOUS FOODS. 

I. Protein.- 

II. Carbohydrates. 

III. Ether Extract. 

1. Heat Valine. 

2. Calculating the Heat-producifig Material in Corn. 

i?.— FEEDING TABLES. 
I. Analysis of Feeding Stuffs. 

1. Amount of Nutrients. 

2. Per Cent, of Digestibility. 

11. Wolff- Lehman n Feeding Standards. 

1. A Balanced Ration. 

2. How the Standards weie Obtaitied. 

3. Standards Used Only as a Basis. 

4. Nutritive Ratio. Exercise 6. 

5. Compounding Ratiofis. 

129 



130 AGRICULTURE. 

v5.— FEEDING STUFFS. 
I. Palatability. 
II. Kinds. 

1. Concentrates. 

2. Roughage. 

(i) Dry Forage. 
(2) Green Forage. 

{a) Pasture. 

{h) Soiling. 

{c) Silage. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 

" The mind of the i/iaster fattens his cattle." 

^.—OBJECT OF FEEDING. 

Farm crops are grown for the profit there is 
in them to the farmer. Farm a^iifnals are fed 
to increase this profit. 

Anything grown on the farm which will help 
to form a suitable food for stock should be fed 
and the waste returned to the soil, so that the 
largest profit may be obtained with the smallest 
loss to the soil. The profit obtained from feed- 
ing farm animals may be manifested in one of 
three forms of work done : (i) increase of flesh, 
by growth or fattening; (2) production of milk, 
wool, etc., or (3) labor performed. 

The amount of digestible food, then, must 
exceed the supply necessary for the demands of 
the body by the amount sufficient to promote 
the work exacted of the animal; otherwise the 
work is done at the expense of the body, and 
the overworked and underfed animal becomes 
poor and weak, because it has drawn upon the 
tissues of the body (flesh consumption) to sup- 
ply the energy for work. In the food of ani- 
mals, as in that of plants, it is necessary to con- 
sider only a few kinds. 

131 



132 AGRICULTURE. 

i?.— KINDS OF FOOD. 

I. Nitrogenous Foods. 

Those supplying nitrogenous compounds, or 
protein, which are used in the formation of tis- 
sues — as, muscle, bone, hair, horn, and also of 
blood and milk — must be furnished to promote 
the orrowth of the trrowino- animal. 

II. Carbonaceous Foods. 

Those — as, starch and sugar — which supply the 
carbohydrates and fats are necessary to produce 
the heat and energy of the body. If there is 
an excess of this kind of food over that required 
in producing heat and energy it is stored in the 
body as fat, and may be drawn upon at any time 
when the food does not contain sufficient heat- 
producing elements. 

III. Other Elements. 

There are other elements necessary to a com- 
plete food, but they are always contained in suf- 
ficient quantity in all foods which supply the 
necessary protein, carbohydrates, and fats, so do 
not need to be taken into consideration in the 
selection of foods. 

C— COMPARISON OF NITROGENOUS AND 
CARBONACEOUS FOODS. 

I. Protein. 

When the carbohydrates are lacking, heat and 
energy can be produced by the protein of the 
food, or even by the tissues, by flesh consump- 



PRINCIPLES FOR FEEDING. 133 

tion; but \{ protein is lacking- in the food, neither 
the carbohydrates, nor any other constituent can 
take its place. It must be borne in mind that 
the protein is by far the most expensive, and 
that it is at an actual loss to the stockman that 
protein-furnishing food is allowed to take the 
place of the cheaper carbohydrates in supplying 
the heat and energy of the animals fed — espe- 
cially since the maintenance of heat and energy 
requires the greater portion of the food. 

II. Carbohydrates. 

It has been found by actual experiments that 
when carbohydrates are fed in connection with 
protein that the protein consumption is lessened; 
hence, not onl)' is the breaking down of the 
tissues of the body prevented, but more of the 
protein of the food is left for the formation of 
flesh, bone, and other tissues. 

III. Ether Extract. 

The fats perform the same function in the 
body as do the carbohydrates. Ether extracts 
are the substances obtained from a " water free " 
food by ether. Though the terms "ether ex- 
tract" and "fats" are not strictly interchange- 
able, they are very often so used. 

I. Heat Value. — It has been estimated that 
one pound of ether extract will produce 2.4 times 
as much heat as one pound of carbohydrates. 



134 



AGRICULTURE. 



TABLE III.* 

AVERAGE DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN 

AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 



NAME OP FEED. 



Concentiales. 
Corn, all analyses . 

Sweet Corn 

Corn Cob 

Corn and cob meal . 
Gluten meal .... 

Wheat 

Winter wheat bran . 
Wheat shorts .... 

Rye 

Rye shorts 

Oats 

Oatmeal 

Oat feed or shorts. . 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat shorts. . 

Kaffir corn 

Millet 

Cottonseed-meal . . 
.Sunflower .seed . . . 
Soja (soy) bean . . . 

Cow-peas 

Rflughagf. 
Fodder corn, green . 
Fodder corn, field. . 
Corn stover, field . . 
Kentucky blue-gras.'- 
Timothy, dif. stages 
Redtop, in bloom . , 
Hungarian grass . . 
Hav. 

Timothy. .' 

Redtop 

Kentucky lilue-gras.'- 
Hvmgarian-grass . . 
Mixed grasses. . . . 
Soja-bean hay. . . . 
Slraw. 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Fresh Lei^umes. 
Red clover,dif.stages 
Crimson clover . . . 

Alfalfa 

Cow-peas 

Soja-laean 

LegH me hay and straw 
Red clovet", medium. 
White clover .... 
Crimson clover . . . 

Alfalfa 

Cow-peas 

Soja-bean 






Lbs. 
89.1 
91.2 
89.3 
84.9 
91.8 
S9-5 
R7-7 
88.2 
8S.4 
90.7 
89.0 
92.1 
92-3 
87.4 
88.9 
S4.8 
86.0 
91.8 
92.5 
89.2 
85.2 

20.7 
57-8 
59-5 
34-9 
384 
34.7 
28.9 



91 I 
788 
92.3 



90.4 
92.9 
90.8 

29.2 
19 I 

28.2 
16.4 
24.9 

84.7 
90.3 
90.4 
91.5 
89-3 
89.9 



DIGESTIBLE NUTRI- 
ENTS IN 100 POUNDS. 



Lbs. 

7-9 

8.8 

0.4 

4-4 
25-8 

10 2 
123 
12.2 

9-9 

11 9 
9.2 

11.5 

12.0 

7-7 

21. 1 

78 

89 

37 2 

12. 1 

29 6 

1 8. 3 

l.o 

2 ,s 
1-7 
30 



2.8 

4.8 
4.8 
4-5 
.S9 
10.8 

0.4 
0.6 
1.2 

29 
2.4 

39 

1.8 
3-2 

68 
II 5 
105 

II. o 

10.8 
23 



Lbs. 
66.7 
63.7 
52-5 
60 o 

43-3 
69.2 

37.1 
500 
67.6 
45-1 
47-3 
52.1 
46.9 
49 2 
33-5 
57-1 
45-0 
16.9 
20.8 
22.3 
54-2 

II. 6 
34-6 
324 
19.8 
19. 1 
21 2 
16.0 

434 
46.9 

37 3 
51-7 
40.9 

38.7 

36.3 
40 6 

38 6 

14.8 
91 

12.7 

8.7 

II. o 

35-8 
42.2 
34-9 
396 
38.6 
40.0 



^^ 



Lbs. 
4-3 
7.0 
03 
2.9 

II. o 

1.7 
26 
38 
I I 
1.6 
4.2 

5-9 

2.8 
1.8 

S-S 
2.7 
3-2 
12 2 
29.0 

14.4 
I.I 



0.7 
0.8 
0.6 
0.6 
04 

1.4 
i.o 
2.0 
1-3 
1.2 
1-5 

0.4 
0.4 

0.8 

0.7 
05 
0.5 
0.2 
05 

1-7 
1-5 
1.2 
I 2 



FERTILIZING CONSTIT- 
UENTS IN 1,000 POUNDS. 



Lbs. 

18.2 
18.6 
5-0 
14. 1 
50.3 
23.6 



28.2 
17.6 
18.4 
20.6 

23 5 
17.2 

14.4 



20.4 
67.9 
22.8 
53-0 
33-3 

4.1 
17.6 
10.4 



4.8 



3-9 

12.6 
II-5 
II. 9 
12.0 
14. 1 
23.2 

5-9 
4.6 
6.2 

5-3 
4 3 
7.2 

2.7 
2.9 

20.7 

27-5 
20.5 
21.9 
19.5 
17-5 



8 ^-2 



Lbs. 



9-1 
4.4 



8.5 
28.8 
12.2 

18.7 



1-5 
5-4 
2.9 



2.6 
'1.6 

5-3 
36 
4.0 
3-5 
2 7 
6.7 

1.2 
2.8 
2.0 



1-3 
1.0 

I 5 

3.8 
5.2 
4.0 
5-1 
5-2 
4.0 



Lbs. 

40 



6.0 
4-7 
0.5 
5-0 



5-9 
5-4 
8.1 
6.2 



3-6 
8.7 
5.6 
19.0 



3-3 
8.9 
14 o 



7.6 
5-5 

90 
10.2 
15-7 
130 

15-5 
108 

5-1 
7-9 
12.4 

4.6 
4-9 
5.6 
3-1 
53 

22.0 
181 
I3-I 
16.8 
14.7 
13-2 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 



135 



TABLE IV.* 

FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMAI^S. 





PER DAY PER 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 


THE ANIMAL. 


Dry 


DIGESTIBLE 


NUTRIENTS 






Mat- 
ter. 












Protein. 


Carbo- 


Ether 


Nutritive 






hydrates. 


Extract. 


ratio : I to 


I. Fattening Cattle. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




First period 


30 


2.5 


15.0 


0.5 


6.5 


Second period 


30 


30 


14-5 


• 0.7 


5-4 


Third period 


26 


2.7 


15-0 


0.7 


6.2 


2. Growing Cattle. 












Dairy Breeds. 












Age in Av. live wt. 












months, per head, lbs. 












2- 3 .... 150 ... . 


23 


4.0 


13.0 


2.0 


4-5 


6-12 .... 500 .... 


27 


2.0 


12.5 


0-5 


6.8 


18-24 .... 900 .... 


26 


1-5 


12.0 


0-3 


8.5 


3. Growing Cattle. 












.5.— Beef Breeds. 












2- 3 . . . . 160 .... 


23 


4.2 


13-0 


2.0 


4.2 


6-12 .... 550 ... . 


25 


2.5 


13.2 


0.7 


6.0 


18-24 .... 950 ••• • 


24 


1.8 


12.0 


0.4 


7.2 


4. Milch Cows, when 












yielding daily : 












ii.o pounds of milk . . . 


25 


1.6 


10. 


0.3 


67 


16.6 pounds of milk . . . 


27 


2.0 


II.O 


0.4 


6.0 


27.5 pounds of milk . . . 




3-3 


13.0 


0.8 


4-5 


5. Horses. 












lyight work 


20 


1-5 


9-5 


0.4 


7.0 


Medium work 


24 


2.0 


II.O 


0.6 


6.2 


Heavy work 


26 


2-5 


13-3 


o.S 


5.0 


6. Sheep. 












Coarse wool 


20 


1.2 


10-5 


0.2 


9-1 


Fine wool 


23 


1-5 


12.0 


0-3 


8.5 


7. Fattening Sheep. 












First period 


30 


3-0 


I5-0 


0.5 


5-4 


Second period 


28 


3-5 


'4-5 


0.6 


4-5 


8. Fattening S^vine. 












First period 


36 


4-5 


25.0 


0.7 


5.9 


Second period 


32 


4.0 


24 


0-5 


6.3 


Third period 


25 


2.7 


iS.o 


0.4 


7.0 


9. Growing, Fattening 












S7vine. 












Age in Av. live wt. 












months, per head, lbs. 












2- 3 .... 50 ... . 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


I.O 


4.0 


5- 6 .... 150 ... . 


33 


4-3 


22.3 


0.6 


5-5 


9-12 .... 300 ... . 


26 


3-0 


18.3 


0.3 


6.4 



* These tables are adapted from Henry's Feeds and Feeding, 



136 AGRICULTURE. 

2. Calctilating the Heat-producing Materiat 
in Corn. — In the table the ether extract in corn 
(all analyses) is given as 4. 3 ; multiplying by 2.4, 
the product is 10.32 pounds. The carbohy- 
drates are given as 66.71 pounds. Adding the 
heat value of the ether extract (10.32 pounds) 
to the carbohydrates given, the sum is 77.02 
pounds, the total heat-producing material in 100 
pounds of corn. 

I. Analysis of Feeding Stuffs. 

1. The atnount of carbohydrates, of ether ex- 
tract, and of protein in a given food has been 
ascertained by repeated analyses. These 
amounts vary in different samples of the same 
kind of food, but the average results of a large 
number of analyses are used as a basis for the 
tables. 

2. Per cent, of Digestibility. — ViwX. \\\(t anioinit 
of nutrients contained in a food is not enoug^h 
to know. One must know what per cent, of it 
is available — that is, what per cent, of it the ani- 
mal in a oiven condition is able to dicrest and 
assimilate. Many experiments* have been and 
are being made to find out the per cent, of these 
nutrients actually digested. Some of the results 
are oriven in table III. 

II. Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards. 

I. A Bala7iccd Ration. — Not only is it essen- 
tial to know the amount of digestible protein, 

* Henry's Feeds and Ft-ediiii;, pp. 26, 27. 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 137 

carbohydrates, and ether extract, but it is im- 
portant to know the proportion of each of these 
two kinds (tissue-forming and heat-producing) 
of digestible nutrients in the feed required to 
produce the best results in different animals un- 
der various conditions of development or re- 
quirements of work. Such a food, or combina- 
tion of foods, for each day is called " a balanced 
ration." 

2. Hoiv the Standards lucre Obtained. — Many 
feeding trials have been made for the purpose 
of ascertaining the ratio which should exist be- 
tween the two kinds — heat and energy produ- 
cing and tissue-forming nutrients. 

The feeding standards originally prepared by 
Dr. Emil v. Wolff and modified by Dr. C. L. 
Lehman n — hence, called the Wolff-Lehmann 
feeding standards — are the results of such trials, 
and while these standards (see Table IV.) are 
not to be considered absolute, they are based 
upon actual results obtained by repeated trials 
of various combinations of these nutrients. 
" The standards are arranged to meet the re- 
quirements of farm animals under normal con- 
ditions." 

3. These Standards are Used Only as a Basis. 
— This table, while giving the actual amounts 
digested by the animals which were fed, is only 
approximately true for other animals under sim- 
ilar conditions, for the amount digested depends 



138 AGRICULTURE. 

not alone upon the food, but upon the breed, 
individuaHty, and condition of the animal fed. 

These standards are excellent as a basis for 
feeding and for comparison. No stockman 
should omit the results of his own experience — 
if he has kept an accurate record of feeds and 
their results — as an element in deciding upon a 
suitable ration for different animals at different 
stages of development or different requirements 
of work. 

4. Nutritive Ratio. — The ratio between the 
protein and the heat-producing elements (car- 
bohydrates and ether extracts) for any kind of 
food, or combination of foods, is called the nu- 
tritive ratio. For example, in the daily food 
required — 20 pounds dry matter — for a horse 
doing light work, the amount of digestible pro- 
tein is 1.5 pounds; carbohydrates, 9.5 pounds; 
ether extract, .4 pounds. Multiplying the num- 
ber of pounds of ether extract, .4, by 2.4, or its 
heat value, the result is .96 pounds ; this, plus 
the carbohydrates, 9.5 pounds, is equal to 10.46 
pounds. Dividing the 10.46 pounds of heat- 
producing elements by the number of pounds of 
protein, 1.5, the result is 7:; therefore, the nu- 
tritive ratio of this food is i : 7. 

Exercise 6. — {a) What is the nutritive ratio of a food 
containing .7 pounds of protein, 8 pounds of carbohy- 
drates, and .1 pound ether extract ? 

{b^ If the nutritive ratio of a food is I'-T-'j, and the 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 139 

ether extract .3, and the carbohydrates 10,, how much 
protein does it contain ? 

(c) If the nutritive ratio of a food is 1:5.2, the protein 
2.8, and the ether extract .8, how much carbohydrate 
does it contain ? 

4. lVz(/e and Nai'-row Ratios. — When the 
amount of carbohydrate and ether extract is 
large in proportion to the amount of protein, 
the ratio is called luide. For example, the nu- 
tritive ratio of corn stover is 1:20, and that of 
oat straw 1:33.7. Both of these would be called 
wide ratios. When the amount of heat-produ- 
cing elements is small in proportion to the 
amount of protein, the ratio is said to be nar- 
row, as in oil meal, where it is i: 1.7. 

In Indian corn the ratio is 1:9.8, and is called 
medittni. As is shown by the table, a medium 
ratio most often gives the best result, growing 
and heavily worked animals (as young cattle, 
1:4.5, '^^'^^ heavily worked horses, 1:6) requir- 
ing a narrower ration — that is, containing a 
greater proportion of protein to carbohydrates 
— than the mature animal, or animal, or those 
doing light work (as, 18:24 months old dairy 
cattle, 1:8.5, '^^^ ^ horse doing light work, 1:7). 
This is due to the fact that protein is needed in 
the growing and working animal for the up- 
buildingr of tissues. 

It will be noticed that there is no wide nutri- 
tive ratio given in the table, as in that case the 



140 AGRICULTURE. 

protein of the food would not be sufficient to 
maintain the tissues of the body. Neither is 
there given an extremely narrow ratio, for that 
would necessitate the consumption of protein 
for the production of heat and energy. When 
a food containincr a medium nutritive ratio is fed 
there are sufficient carbohydrates to supply the 
heat and energy, and protein enough to main- 
tain the body, and either to build up additional 
tissues in growth or flesh, or to be used in the 
production of milk. 

5. Compounding Rations. — It is not often that 
any one kind of food will supply the desired 
ratio of nutrients, so it is necessary to combine 
several kinds in such proportions as to give that 
ratio in the combined food. For example, if 
timothy hay (the nutritive ratio of which is 
i: 16.7) forms the rough food, a balanced ration 
can only be obtained by combining with it some 
highly concentrated food — as, cottonseed-meal, 
whose nutritive ratio is 1:1.2; while if hay 
from clover, cow-peas, or alfalfa, is used, corn 
and oats will be sufficient, if used in proper pro- 
portions, to form a balanced ration. 

Exercise 7. — Finding, or estimating, a ration for 1,000 
pounds of live weight according to the standard in the 
table. 

Problem : To determine the riition for ahorse weigh- 
ing I/500 pounds and doing light work. According to 
the table, the following standard is required: dry mat- 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 141 

ter, 20 pounds; protein, 1.5; carbohydrates, 9.5 pounds; 
ether extract, 0.4 pounds, and the nutritive ratio, i: 7. 

All that is necessary is to find such a combination of 
foods as will make a nutritive ratio of 1:7 and furnish 
approximately 20 pounds of dry matter. For a trial 
ration, assume 15 pounds of red clover hay and 10 pounds 
of oats. 

First Trial. — Required to find the number of pounds 
of dry matter, protein, carbohydrates, and ether extract, 
respectively, in 15 pounds of clover hay and 10 pounds 
of oats. 

(a) In 100 pounds of clover hay there are, according 
to the table, 84.7 pounds of dry matter, 6.8 pounds of 
protein, 35 8 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1.7 pounds 
of ether extract. 

Then in 15 pounds of clover hay there are: 

15 X i7,i7 = 12.7 of dry matter; 

15 X ,'',■„- = I 02 pounds of protein; 

15^17^= 5-37 pounds of carbohydrates; and 

15 X 75^ — -25 pounds of ether extract. 

(/^) In 100 pounds of oats there are, according to the 
table, 89 pounds of dry matter, 9.2 pounds of protein, 
47.3 pounds of carbohydrates, and 4.2 pounds of ether 
extract. 

Then in 10 pounds of oats there are: 

10 X -|^ = 8.9 pounds of dry matter; 
ioX-^= .92 pounds of protein; 
10 X ~~ = 4-73 pounds of carboln'drates; and 
I o X -jTiTT = 4- 2 pounds of ether extract. 

Adding the amounts of these different substances con- 
tained in: 



142 



AGRICULTURE. 





Drv 

Mat'ler. 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ether 
Extract. 


Clover, IS lbs 


12.7 

S.9 


1.02 

•92 


5-37 
4 73 


•25 

•42 






21.6 


1.94 


10. lO 


•67 





The nutritive ratio, then, is i to the quotient obtained 
by dividing the sum of lo.io + (2.4 x .67) = i r.708 by 
1.94=6. Therefore, the nutritive ratio is 1:6. 

Comparing this with the standard, we find 
that the ratio is that given for a horse doing 
heavy work, while the nutritive ratio given for a 
horse doing light work is given as i : 7, A horse 
at light work requires less protein than one do- 
ing heavy work ; hence, this ratio is too narrow. 
Then, as another trial, let five pounds of oat 
straw be substituted for five pounds of the clover 
hay. 

Second Trial. — Required to find the number of pounds 
of dry matter, protein, carbohydrates, and ether extract, 
respectively, in 10 pounds of clover hay and 5 pounds of 
oat straw. 

(rt) In 100 pounds of clover hay there are, according 
to the table, 84.7 pounds of dry matter, 6.8 pounds of 
protein, 35.8 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1.7 pounds of 
ether extract. 

Then in 10 pounds of clover hay there are: 

lox-^Tij- = 8.47 pounds of dry matter; 
iox-^= .68 pounds of protein; 
10 X ^ = 3.58 pounds of carbohydrates; and 
iox-nJ5-= .17 pounds of ether extract. 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 



143 



(^b) In loo pounds of oat straw there are, according 
to the table, 90.8 pounds of dry matter, 1.2 pounds of 
protein, 38.6 pounds of carbohydrates, 0.8 pounds of 
ether extract. 

Then in 5 pounds of oat straw there are: 

5 XlTT — 4-54 pounds of dry matter; 

5 X^ = .06 pounds of protein; 

5 X-^ = 1.93 pounds of carbohydrates; and 

5 X -|^ = .04 pounds of ether extract. 

Adding the amounts of these different substances con- 
tained in: 





Drv 

Matter. 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ether 
Extract. 


Clover, 10 lbs 


8.47 

8.9 

4-54 


.68 
.06 


3.5s 
4-73 
I 93 


•17 
.42 
.04 


Oat straw, 5 lbs 




21.91 


1.66 


10.24 


.63 





The nutritive ratio is 1:7. 

Comparing this second trial ration with that 
of the standard, we find that the nutritive ratio 
is that given for a horse doing ligJit work. 

Exercise 8. — (i) For fattening cattle, compound a 
ration having a nutritive ratio of 1:5.4 containing two 
different kinds of roughage and one concentrate. 

(2) For a milch cow, compound a ration consisting of 
red clover, hay, corn silage, oat straw, and wheat bran, 
and having a nutritive ratio of 1:7, and approximating 
25 pounds of dry matter. 

(3) For cattle, compound a maintenance ration hav- 
ing a nutritive ratio of i: 10, and approximating 18 
pounds of dry matter. 



144 AGRICULTURE. 

(4) [a) Let each student compute the nutritive ratio 
of a ration vvitli which lie is actually feeding, or knows 
is being fed, to a cow or a horse. 

(^) Does the condition of the animal justify the con- 
tinuance of this ration ? Why ? 

(r) How does this nutritive ratio compare with that of 
the standard given for an animal under similar condi- 
tions. 

(d) If this ratio is too wide or too narrow, is it on ac- 
count of the kinds of food, or on account of the propor- 
tion of the different kinds of food ? Modify this ration 
so that the nutritive ratio will agree with that of the 
standard. 

A— FEEDING STUFFS. 

Wherever it is possible, the food fed to the 
stock should be groion on the farm and not 
bouofht. 

In deciding upon a ration for a given animal, 
the stockman should know two things: (i) 
what the animal needs ; (2) what the food 
contains. Then he can determine what foods 
will supply the demands of the animal in ques- 
tion. 

I. Palatability 

of foods is of no little importance, for if from 
any reason the animal does not relish the food, 
enough will not be eaten to produce any gain. 
Animals tire of the same food used continuous- 
ly, just as man does; hence an occasional change 
in the food is a good plan, but this should be 
done in such a manner as not to materially 
change the nutritive ratio. 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 145 

II. Kinds. 

1. Conceiitrtitc. — \ food which contains a 
minimum amount of crude fiber and water in 
proportion to the nutrients is called a concen- 
trate. 

2. Ro7io;hape. — i\ food which contains a lan^e 
amount of crude fiber or of water in proportion 
to its nutritive elements is called roughage, 
coarse food, or forage. 

The element of bulk must be taken into con- 
sideration in determining a ration, especially for 
a ruminant. If a food is too concentrated, a 
sufficient amount of digfestible nutrients do not 
distend the digestive organs, and the juices of 
the stomach and intestines cannot work upon 
the food effectively. If the food is too bulky, 
enough cannot be eaten to supply the proper 
nutrients, or too much energy is consumed in 
the eating of it. About two-thirds of the dry 
matter in the ration for ruminants should be 
coarse food and one-third concentrated food ; 
for work-horses, the food should be about half 
and half of each. 

As will be seen from the tables, the concen- 
trates contain a much greater per cent, of pro- 
tein than the coarse foods do. Those having" 
the greatest proportion of protein (see table) 
are cottonseed-meal, soy-bean, buckwheat shorts, 
and cow-peas. 

There are two kinds of roughage : (i) dry 



146 AGRICULTURE. 

forage — as, hay, fodders, etc. — and (2) green 
forage — as, pasture, soiling crops, and silage. 

(2) Green Forage. — (a) Pasture. — Animals 
on pasture seem to be in their natural environ- 
ment and need very little concentrated food 
compared with those of the same grade fed upon 
dry forage. Green food contains a much less 
per cent, of digestible nutrients on account of 
the large per cent, of water, and hence it is 
necessary to eat a greater quantity, and an ani- 
mal in pasture expends much energy in walking 
over the pasture to secure the food and in mas- 
ticating the extra quantity. For this reason the 
method of feeding called " soiling " is advocated 
by many experiment stations. 

((5) Soiling is the feeding of forage crops 
green to stock confined in covered barn-yards. 
Experiments conducted at various stations prove 
that a greater number of animals can be fed 
from the same number of acres than can be fed 
by pasturing. 

At the Wisconsin experiment station it was 
found that one acre of a soiling crop equaled 
two and a half acres of good blue-grass pas- 
ture for feeding dairy cows. A dairy cow 
requires from 60 to 100 pounds of green forage 
daily. 

It is objected that the practice of soiling in- 
volves extra work. But green forage need only 
be gathered twice a week if thinly spread upon 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 147 

the floor of the barn, and most crops can be cut 
with the mower; so, after all, it will not require 
much time. Especially should this plan of feed- 
ing supplement the pasture by supplying some 
green forage — as, rye early in the spring, and 
soy-beans when the pasture becomes short and 
dry in midsummer (see " Rotation of Crops," 
Course 7). 

It is at this latter period that the heat is so 
oppressive and the flies so troublesome, and if 
the stock can be housed in a darkened but well- 
ventilated place in the daytime, and turned into 
the pasture at night, much greater comfort to 
the animal and a gain in milk or flesh will re- 
sult. 

There is another economical problem which 
the covered barn-yard (see Fig. 29) solves. It 
is that of saving the waste, that it may be re- 
turned to the soil as a fertilizer (see " Fertiliz- 
ers "). Not only is the soil benefited by the 
fertilizing material returned to it, but soiling 
crops are very useful in helping to form the 
courses in rotation (see Courses 5 and 7), which 
are most beneficial to the soil and most profit- 
able to the farmer. 

(<r) Silage. — There is a time of year in the 
greater portion of this country when neither 
pasturing nor soiling is possible. Science has 
again come to the aid of the stockman, and 
found a way to provide green food in winter. 



148 AGRICULTURE. 

It is by preserving green forage in a silo* (see 
Fig. 35), on the same principle that green fruits 
are preserved for winter use by canning — that 
is, by cxcliuiing the air. 

The advantages of silage are stated as fol- 
lows by Professor H. J. Waters, Director of 
the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station : 

"(^) Green and succulent food is thereby 
provided for the winter months. 

"(^) The green plant is more palatable, the 
coarser parts of the stalk being much more com- 
pletely consumed when made into silage. 

"((f) A large quantity of material may be 
stored in a comparatively small space. 

''{d) The harvesting is done during the pleas- 
ant weather in the early fall, and the drudgery 
of handling dry stover in winter is obviated. f 

"(^) It is cheaper, on the whole, than to be 
at the expense of husking and grinding the ears 
and cuttine and shreddina: the stover. It does 
not appear to affect the digestibility of the ma- 
terial either favorably or unfavorably." 

If the silage is not all used during the winter 
months, it can be fed when needed in the sum- 
mer to take the place of soiling crops. 



* For full discussion of silo and silage, send for a book on 
silage, by F. W. Woll, Silver Manufacturing Co., Salem, Ohio. 

f Since the forage used for silage is put into the silo as soon 
as cut, there is no occasion for loss by unfavorable weather, as 
is so often the case with hay. 







FIG. 35. — ROUND SILO. (MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE FARM.) 
Diameter, 18 feet; hight, 30 feet; capacity, 150 tons. Cost, ^{175.00. 



149 



150 AGRICULTURE. 

Corn and clover are most often used in mak- 
ing silage. Silage is recommended not only as 
an excellent food for the dairy cow and for 
sheep, but it forms a good substitute for oats as 
a food for fattening cattle. It should constitute 
from two-thirds to three-fourths of the rough- 
age for cows; alfalfa, clover, or cow-peas consti- 
tuting the remainder of the coarse food. 

A— REFERENCES. 

" Feeds and Feeding." Henry. Published by the author. 
Madison, Wisconsin. 

" The Fertility of the Land." Roberts. lo. 

"Feeding the Dairy Cow." Bulletin 58, Missouri Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station. 

"Stock Feeding." Bulletin 67, South Carolina Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

"Feeding Stuffs." Bulletin 107, Virginia Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station. 

"Feeding Stuffs." Bulletin 12. West Virginia Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

"Concentrated Feeding Stuffs." Bulletin 165, New Jersey 
Agricultural Experiment Station. 

"Stock Feeding." Bulletin 67. 

" Feeding of Animals." Jordan. 10. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER VII. 

ROTATION OF CROPS. 

^.—INFLUENCE OF ROTATION UPON PLANT- 

FOOD. 

I. Preserves Food Supply. 

1. Prevents Exhaustion. 

2. Prevents Loss by Exposure 

II. Increases Food Supply. 

1. Renders Plant-food Available. 

2. Brings Up Pla7it-food from the Subsoil. 

3. Facilitates Fertilizing. 

^.—ROTATION AS AFFECTING THE ENEMIES 
OF PLANTS. 

I. Eradicates Weeds. 
II. Exterminates Insect Pests. 

C— PROFIT IN ROTATION. 

Z>.— SELECTING THE COURSE IN ROTATION. 
I. What Can Be Successfully Grown ? 
II. What Can Be Successfully Used or Sold? 

A— BETTER DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR. 

i^.— SUGGESTED COURSES IN ROTATION. 

6^.— TABLE OF SOILING CROPS. 

i^.— CATCH, OR COVER, CROPS. 

/.—KEEPING ACCURATE ACCOUNTS. 

Exercise 9. 

/.—REFERENCES. 

151 



CHAPTER VII. 

ROTATION OF CROPS. 

Many of the problems that confront the 
farmer of the present day might have been 
avoided had Rotation of Crops been more often 
^practiced by our fathers. The productiveness 
of the soil cannot continue for any considerable 
length of time unless rotation, or change of 
crops, is practiced, or fertilizers heavily applied. 

^.—INFLUENCE OF ROTATION UPON PLANT- 
FOOD. 

I. Preserves Food Supply. 

I. Prevents Exhaiistion. — Different plants re- 
quire different proportions of the various foods. 
If the same crop — as, wheat or cotton — is grown 
continuously for a number of years, the soil in 
that field may become so deficient in certain 
elements essential to that particular crop as to 
very materially lessen the yield ; while if some 
other crop, as clover, be sown, the yield may be 
very heavy, and hence the crop may be more 
profitable, even at a lower price. Crops should 
be so selected that different plant-foods — or, at 
least, different proportions of the plant-foods — 
will be demanded from the soil each year. 

153 



154 AGRICULTURE. 

2. Prevents Loss by Exposure. — The mate- 
rials from the soil are not only taken up by the 
plants, but continuous free and open cultivation 
exposes the humus of the soil to the sun and to 
the oxygen of the air, and more of its nitrogen 
is made soluble than can be taken up by the 
plants; hence, it is washed out and cariHed away 
by the rains (Fig. 8). (See under " Cover 
Crops," p. 159.) 

II. Increases Food Supply. y 

1 . Renders Plant-food A vailable. — Repetition 
of certain kinds of crops — as, timothy or blue- 
grass — tends to use up the food faster than it is 
rendered available, while change of crops and 
consequent cultivation hastens the breaking up 
of the chemical compounds in the soil, and thus 
renders plant-food available. 

2. Brings Up Plaut-food from the Subsoil. — 
The food supply may be further increased by 
rotating clover, or any legume (all of which 
have deep-feeding roots), with a crop of corn, or 
wheat (Fig. 36), which has surface-feeding 
roots. In this way the deep-feeding roots bring 
up food elements from the subsoil, and when 
these roots decay these food materials are ac- 
cessible to the surface-feeding plants. 

3. Facilitates Fertilizing. — Rotation not only 
prevents the exhaustion of the fertility of the 
soil, but may be useful in making artificial fer- 




155 



156 AGRICULTURE. 

tilizing successful. For example, if stable com- 
post be applied immediately preceding crops of 
small grain — as, wheat or oats — it may injure the 
crop by tending to produce straw rather than 
grain ; while if it be applied before corn is 
planted, it will result in an increased yield of 
corn, and a better condition of the soil for sub- 
sequent crops (see Fig. 27, "Showing Effect of 
Nitrate," p. 80). 

^.—ROTATION AS AFFECTING THE ENEMIES 
OF PLANTS. 

I. Eradicates Weeds. 

Short rotations with wheat and clover tend 
to eradicate weeds. If a field becomes overrun 
with certain weeds — as, the broad-leafed plan- 
tains — they may be eradicated in a few years by 
short rotations of winter wheat, or rye, with 
clover. The clover should be sown upon the 
wheat early in the spring. The wheat will not 
be damaged by the weeds, as they do not seed 
before it is cut, while the same will be true of 
the clover the following year. The clover stub- 
ble should be plowed at once to avoid the seed- 
ing of the weeds. 

It would then be well to thoroughly prepare 
the soil and put it in turnips, or some hoed crop, 
until time to sow the fall wheat, when the 
ground may be prepared by harrowing. 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 157 

Certain kinds of weeds are found in certain 
kinds of crops; then, if the field is weedy, this 
particular crop should not be grown until these 
weeds are killed out. 

II. Exterminates Insect Pests. 

Again, certain crops are more apt to be in- 
fested with particular insect pests (see " Enemies 
of Plants"), or fungous (parasitic) plants. If it 
is known that such enemies have even a start 
upon a certain field, that crop should not be 
grown upon it the following year, nor until the 
pest, whatever it may be, is eradicated. Co- 
operation of neighbors can greatly facilitate this 
work. 

C— PROFIT IN ROTATION. 

If there is one crop which can be grown upon 
a field that is more profitable than another crop, 
it is the first one to be considered in the system 
of rotation. This crop, however, should not be 
repeatedly grown, but such a rotation should be 
chosen as will best fit the grround for the laro-est 
yield of the best-paying crop. 

Z>.-SELECTING THE COURSE IN ROTATION. 

I. What Can Be Successfully Grown ? 

This will depend upon the kind of soil, the 
climate, and the seasons. The poorer the soil 
the shorter the course, and the richer the soil 
the longer the course of rotation may be. 



158 AGRICULTURE. 

II. What Can Be Successfully Used or Sold? 

This is another question to be considered in 
selecting the course in rotation. The answer 
to this question will depend upon the farmer's 
facilities for keeping and feeding certain kinds 
of stock, or upon the location as regards markets 
for farm crops. 

^.—BETTER DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR. 
Rotation of farm crops not only makes better 
farms, but it makes better men. In the great 
grain districts the work requires many men for 
a short time, and is much less to be desired than 
to have several successive crops, which distribute 
the labor throughout the year and enable it to 
be done by a less number of men, thus making 
homes and true civilization possible.* A few 
courses in rotation are suggested below. 

i^.— SUGGESTED COURSES IN ROTATION. 

1. Clover, corn, oats, and wheat. 

2. Clover, corn, potatoes, and wheat. 

3. Clover, corn, and wheat. 

4. Clover and timothy, mixed, two years, corn, 
wheat, and cow-peas. 

5. Cow-peas or clover, cotton, and wheat. 

6. Peanuts, cotton, and wheat. 

7. For soiling crops : Rye, soy-beans, winter 
wheat, and clover. 



Roberts' The Fertility of the Land, p. 369. 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 
(7.— TABLE V. 

SOIIvING CROPS.* 



159 



CROPS. 


Seed per Acre. 


Time of 
Seeding. 


Area, 


Titne of Cutting. 


Rye 

Wheat 

Red clover .... 

Grass and clover . 

Vetch and oats . . 
Vetch and oats . . 
Peas and oats . . 

Peas and oats . . 

Barnyard millet . 
Barnyard millet . 

Soja bean 

Corn 


2 bushels 

2 bushels 

20 lbs. 

I Yi bu. red top 

- Yi fiu. timothy 

( 10 lbs. r. clover 

j 3 bu. oats 

\ 50 lbs. vetch 

50 lbs. vetch 

J i^ bu. Canada 

I I Y2. bu. oats . . 

j \Yi bu. Canada 

1 iJ4 bu. oats 

I peck 

I peck 

iS quarts 


Sept. 10-15 

Sept. 10-15 

July 15-Aug. I 

I September 

!■ April 20 

April 30 

j- April 20 

[ April 30 

May 10 
May 25 
May 20 
May 20 
May 30 

I"iy 15 

[ Aug. 5 


Y acre 

Y acre 

Y acre 

-/i acre 

Y acre 

Y acre 

Y acre 

Y acre 

Y3 acre 
Yi acre 
Yi acre 
Yi acre 
Yi acre 

Y acre 

I acre 


May 20- May 30 
June i-June 15 
June 15-June 25 

June 15-June 30 

June 25-July 10 
July 10- July 20 
June 25-July 10 

July 10 

July 25-Aug. 10 
Aug. lo-Aug. 20 
Aug. 25-Sept. 15 
Aug. 25-Sept. 10 


Corn 




Sept. lo-Sept. 20 


Hungarian . . . 
Barley and peas . . 


I bushel 
j i54 bu. peas 
'1 i}^ bu. barley 


Sept. 20-Sept. 30 
Oct. i-Oct. 20 



The above table of plants used for soiling 
may be helpful in selecting short crops in a 
rotation. 

^.— CATCH, OR COVER, CROPS. 

Catch, or cover crops — as, crimson clover, cow- 
peas, rye, Kaffir-corn, teosinte, and vetch — may 
often be grown in the time intervening between 
the principal crops of the year with very little 
labor and often with much profit. A field which 
is used in short rotations loses no more of its fer- 
tility than one which lies idle aud loses its sub- 
stance by exposure to the weather, or gives it up 
to weeds. 



Henry's Feeds and Feeding, p. 233. 



IGO AGRICULTURE. 

/.—KEEPING ACCURATE ACCOUNTS. 

This is as essential on the farm as in the bank 
or store ; for the farmer should know just what 
his profit is, and what crops pay best. This can 
be known only by keeping account of all work 
done and money expended in putting in and in 
harvesting the crop, and in the feeding or mar- 
keting of it. 

Exercise 9. — {a) Each student should carefully pre- 
pare an original plan for a course in rotation upon a 
poor soil, and another upon a fertile soil, in his own 
vicinity. 

{/>) Give directions for the preparation of the soil as 
regards fertilization and tillage. 

{c) Give directions and reasons for the disposition of 
each of these various crops. Is it to be fed, or sold ? 
If fed, in what condition — green or dry? To what ani- 
mals ? 

(a) Make an estimate of the probable cost of seed and 
work, and of the value of the crop ; if sold; if fed ; and 
calculate the gain. 

((?) Read and discuss in class each plan, with reasons. 
Be able to defend every point taken. 

/.—REFERENCES. 

" Practices in Crop Rotation." Year-book, 1902. 

" The Fertility of the Land." Roberts. 10. 

" Fertilizers." Voorhees. 1900. 10. 

" First Principles of Agricuhure." Voorhees. 10. 

" The Science of Agriculture." Lloyd. 9. 

" Soils and Crops of the Farm." Morrow & Hunt. 1902. 4. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER VIII. 

MILK AND ITS CARE. 

C. H. ECKLES, 

Dairy Hiishandi y, Missouii Agticitltiiral F.xperiuicnt Slation. 

^.— MILK. 
I. Secretion. 
II. Care of Milk. 

1. Sources of Ahnor»ial Odors. 

(i) Certain Foods. 

(2) The Air. 

(3) Bacteria. 

2. Keeping Bacteria Out of Milk. 

3. Preventing Gro7vth of Bacteria. 

(i)'Low Temperature. 
(2) Pasteurization. 

III. Composition. 

1. Butter Fat. 

2. Casein and Albumen. 

(i) Casein. 
(2) Albumen. 

3. Milk Sugar. 

4. Ash. 

IV. Color. 

V. Variation in Quantity and Quality. 

1. Breed of Animals. 

2. Individuality. 

3. Period of Lactation. 

4. Feed. 

5. External Conditions. 

6. First and Last Milk Drawn. 

7. Intervals between Mil kings. 

161 



162 AGRICULTURE. 

VI. The Babcock Test. 

1. The Need of a Test for Butter Fat. 

2. The Babcock Method. 

(i) Test-bottles. 

(2) Pipette. 

(3) Acid Measure. 

(4) Centrifugal Machine. 

(5) Sampling Milk. 

(6) Making the Test. 

(7) Reading the Test. 

(8) Testing Skim-milk and Buttermilk, 

(9) Testing Cream. 

Weigh Out Cream for Testing. 

^.— CREAM. 

I. Separation of Cream. 

1. By Gravity. 

(i) Shallow Pans. 

(2) Deep Setting. 

(3) Dilution. 

2. By Centrifugal Force. 
II. Ripening Cream. 

C— BUTTER. 
I. Coloring. 
II. Kinds of Churns. 

III. Churning. 

1. Temper at ure. 

2. Other Factors Affecting Time of Churning, 

3. Wheti to Stop Churning. 

IV. Washing Butter. 
V. Salting. 

VI. Working. 

VII. Composition of Butter. 
VIII. Overrun. 
IX. Packing and Marketing. 

Z>.— REFERENCES. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

MILK AND ITS CARE. 

C. H. ECKLES, 
Dairy Husbaiidtv, Missouri AgricuHuia/ Expefinieni Station. 

^.— MILK. 

I. Secretion of Milk. 

Milk is a tluid secreted by the mammary 
glands of all animals that suckle their young. 
It contains all the elements of nutrition neces- 
sary for the nourishment of the young animal 
in a palatable and easily digested form. 

The material forming milk is all taken from 
the blood, but changed in nature by the secret- 
ing cells so that no constituent of milk, except 
water, is found in the blood in the same form. 

In the wild state the cow only gave milk 
enough to nourish the calf until it could subsist 
on other food. Under domestication of the 
cow the secretion of the milk has been greatly 
increased by careful selection and liberal feeding. 

II. Care of Milk. 

The conditions under which milk is handled 
are of the greatest importance, whether it be 
used as food or manufactured into butter or 
cheese. 

I. Sources of Abnormal Odors. — Milk begins 
to decompose and possesses abnormal odors 



164 AGRICULTURE. 

and tastes after standing for some time, and 
occasionally these are present when it is milked. 
There are three common sources of these ob- 
jectionable tastes and odors in milk. 

(i) Certain Foods, — When food eaten by 
cows contains any strong volatile substance, 
this will be carried througrh the circulation of 
the cow and into the milk. For example, when 
a cow eats onions, turnips, or even some strong 
weeds, the characteristic odor and taste may be 
recognized in the milk. These odors may be 
mostly driven off by heating the milk. Ordi- 
narily very little trouble is experienced from 
this source, as the common feeds have no notice- 
able effect on the flavor of the milk. 

(2) The Air. — Any odors, even if not very 
pronounced, may be readily absorbed from the 
air by milk or butter. Milk exposed to the air 
of an ill-kept barn, or a musty cellar, often ab- 
sorbs odors that make it very objectionable for 
food. 

(3) Bacteria. — The most common cause of 
objectionable tastes and odors of milk is the 
action of various bacteria. Bacteria of many 
kinds are found in milk, and various kinds of 
fermentation result from their action. In addi- 
tion to common souring, milk may be decom- 
posed, giving off bad odors, may become ropy, 
or bitter, or even have an abnormal color due 
to the action of bacteria. 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 



165 



Most of the 
bacteria found in 
milk are perfectly 
harmless, al- 
though at times 
those causing 
diseases, such as 
typhoid fever, 
diphtheria, and 
tuberculosis, may 
get into the milk. 
It is impossible 
to keep all bac 



o o 



o 



°\ 



o9 O ° OoOo c 

" o ° o^o 



^Q 



„ 

r. 



O ^O 



o^^ 



°vj o ^ - 

o OO ^ 



o 

o 






O 



teria out of milk, q' ,^ \ ^ VQ N 
but a great deal % '• ,^0 x\» #^'Q 
done to- oQi.A:;.Pct)Y- 
keeping Q I'/A^oV^^'^QV- 



can be 
ward k 
them o 
keeping those 



that do get in 
from growing 

(Fig- 37)- 




•-^o'.y-o^^^ 



it v^x.• ' > • » 

2. Keeping Bac- 
teria OiLtof j\Iilk. 
— This process 
may be summed 
up in one word — 
cleanliness. 

The bacteria (Fig. ■^'j) get into milk with 
dust particles from many sources, but the most 



n « 

B 

Fir.. 3/. PUKE AND IMPURE MII.K 

HIGHLY MAGNIFIED. 

,-1, pure milk; /?, after standing in a warm room 
for a few hours in a dirty dish, showing, be- 
sides the fat globules, many forms of 
bacteria. 



166 AGRICULTURE. 

common and the worst contamination usually 
takes place in the barn. Very often the stable 
is not kept clean, the body of the cow becomes 
soiled, and, during milking, dust particles from 
the hair become loosened and drop into the 
milk-pail. The milker may wear dirty clothes, 
and the air of the barn may be full of dust, or 
the milk-vessels may not be perfectly clean. 

The number of bacteria in the milk can be 
greatly reduced by observing the utmost clean- 
liness in every particular, especially about the 
barn, during milking, and by cleansing the uten- 
sils thoroughly. All milk-vessels should first be 
rinsed out with cold water, as hot water coagu- 
lates the albumen and makes it stick to the ves- 
sels. After this rinsing, they should be thor- 
oughly scalded and sunned to kill any bacteria 
present. 

3. Preventing Growth of Bacteria. — Next in 
importance to keeping bacteria out of milk is 
preventing those that do get in from growing 
rapidly. 

(i) Low Temperature is the chief factor to 
be relied upon. If it is desired to keep milk 
sweet for some time, it should be cooled at once 
after milking to 50° F., or lower if possible. If 
this is done, and this temperature maintained, 
milk will remain sweet several days, while if it 
is allowed to remain warm it will sour within 
twenty-four hours. 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 



161 




FIG. 38. — PASTEURIZING APPARATUS. 



(2) Pasteurization.— Another method of 
preventing the growth of bacteria in milk is 
that of Pas- 
t eurizatio n 
(Fig. 38). This 
consists in 
heating milk 
to about 160° 
F. for twenty 
minutes, then 
rapidly cool- 
ing to 50° F. 
This kills 
about 99 per 
cent, of the bacteria, and the keeping quality of 
the milk is very much improved. 

III. Composition of Milk. 

The milk of all mammals contains practically 
the same constituents, but varies greatly in the 
proportion of each. The average composition 
of cow's milk in America is as follows : Water, 
87.5 per cent.; fat, 3.6 per cent.; casein, 2.9 per 
cent.; albumen, .5 per cent.; milk sugar, 4.75 
per cent.; ash, or mineral, .75 per cent. 

I. Butter Fat. — The butter fat is commer- 
cially the most valuable part of milk. It varies 
in amount more than any other constituent of 
milk except water. Wide variations from the 
average composition are constantly found. Fat 
seldom is less than 2.5 per cent., or more than 



108 AGRICULTURE* 

7 per cent. Butter fat is found in milk in the 
form of minute drops of oil, called globules. 
These globules vary in size from xijoTi to -^ohnr 
of an inch in diameter (see A, Fig. t,"/). The 
number present in even a small amount of milk 
is beyond comprehension. This fat is made up 
of a mixture of ten or more distinct oils, the 
more important of which are stearin, pabnatin, 
oleiu, and butyrin. The first two mentioned 
melt at a temperature above 140° F., while olein 
is liquid at 32° F. The hardness of a certain 
lot of butter depends upon the proportion of 
these oils present. Green food, such as grass, 
increases the proportion of olein, and accounts 
for the soft condition usually observed in butter 
made during- the summer months. 

Butyrin is the characteristic fat of butter, and 
is found only in butter fat. The chemical dif- 
ference between butter and oleomargarine is 
largely the absence of butyrin in the latter. 

The size of the fat globules (Fig. 37) in milk 
varies with the breed of the cow, the feed, and 
with the individual animal. It is of some im- 
portance on account of the relation it bears to 
the separation of cream and to churning. Large 
fat globules separate from the milk and form 
cream more quickly than do small ones, and 
with somewhat less loss of butter fat in the 
skim-milk. Cream composed of large fat glo- 
bules churns more rapidly. 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 169 

2. Casein and Albiuncn. — These constituents 
vary less in quantity than does butter fat. They 
are very similar in composition, and serve the 
same purposes as food, but differ widely in ap- 
pearance. They differ from other parts of milk 
by containing sulphur, nitrogen, and phos- 
phorus. 

(i) Casein. — This constituent of milk may be 
seen as the curd which forms when milk sours. 
It is present in milk in a very finely divided con- 
dition in combination with lime. When milk 
sours, the acid unites with the lime, and the 
casein then becomes insoluble, and appears as 
the common curd of sour milk. 

When milk is used for butter-making, the 
most of the casein remains in the skim-milk, 
some goes into the buttermilk, and a small 
amount into the butter, making upon the aver- 
age I per cent, of the latter. 

Casein is an important part of cheese, com- 
posing approximately one-third of common 
cheese. 

(2) Albumen. — This substance, as found in 
milk, is practically the same as the white of an 
^'g'g. It differs from casein in being entirely in 
solution, making about .5 per cent. When milk is 
heated to i6o°F., or above, the albumen is coag- 
ulated, and is seen as a tough scum on the sur- 
face. 

When milk is used for butter-making, the 



170 AGRICULTURE. 

most of the albumen remains with the skim-milk 
and buttermilk. In cheese-making albumen re- 
mains in the whey, and is not incorporated into 
the cheese. The very disagreeable odors char- 
acteristic of decomposing milk are largely pro- 
duced from albumen. 

J. Milk Sugar. — This sugar, known by the 
chemist as lactose, has the same composition as 
common cane sugar (CijH^^OjjH^O), and is 
found only in milk. It appears, when separated, 
as a fine white powder, with a mild, sweet taste. 
Milk sugar is a common commercial article, be- 
ing usually secured from whey as a by-product 
of cheese-making. When milk is used for butter- 
making almost all the sugar remains with the 
skim-milk and buttermilk, while in cheese-mak- 
ing it remains in the whey. Its chief impor- 
tance in butter or cheese making is its relation 
to the souring of milk or milk products, which 
is due to the decomposition of the sugar through 
the action of minute forms of plant life called 
bacteria. By this act of decomposition, lactic 
acid is produced from the sugar, and this gives 
the common sour taste and causes the precipita- 
tion of the casein, as seen in soured milk. 

4. AsJi. — This is the portion that would re- 
main if milk were burned. It consists of a mix- 
ture of several elements, the most important 
being lime, iron, potash, magnesium, sulphur, 
and phosphorus. These mineral matters are all 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 171 

in combination with the casein and albumen, 
and make up about .7 per cent, of average milk. 

IV. Color. 

The normal white color of milk is mostly due 
to the casein. The yellow shade observed in 
varying degrees is due to a specific coloring 
matter called lactochrome, which is combined 
with the butter fat, and gives butter the natural 
yellow color. The amount of this coloring mat- 
ter varies greatly, being affected the most by 
the feed of the cow, but also by breed and in- 
dividuality of the cow. Green feeds, as grasses, 
give the highest color, while dry feeds, as hay 
and grain^ the least color. The Guernsey and 
Jersey breeds produce the highest colored milk 
and butter; the Holstein and Ayrshire the 
lightest colored. The yellow color of milk is 
often taken as an index of its richness, but this 
cannot be relied upon, and is of little value as a 
means of judging the quality of milk. 

V. Variation in Quantity and Quality. 

I. Breed. — Certain breeds of cows are charac- 
terized by producing rich milk, and others by pro- 
ducing unusually large quantities. The breeds 
that produce rich milk produce a less quantity, 
on the average, than do those producing the 
poorer quality. In order of ricJiness, the com- 
mon breeds stand as follows : Jersey, Guernsey, 
Short Horn, Red Poll, Ayrshire, Holstein. The 
Holstein breed stands considerably ahead in 




FIG. 39. — A GUERNSEY COW — CHARMANTE OF THE GRON I4442. 

ADV. R. NO. 74. 
Test, 11,874.76 pounds milk; 676 pounds fat. Florhani Farms, New Jersey. 




FIG. 40. — -A JERSEY COW IMP. JKRSKY VENTURE I22508. 

A. J. C. C. 8285, J. H. B. F. S. 
I,one Tree Herd, Greensburg, Ind. 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 173 

amount of milk, followed by the Ayrshire, Guern- 
sey, and Jersey. 

2. Individuality. — The difference between in- 
dividual animals in the same breed is greater 
than the average difference between breeds, 
both as to quality and quantity of milk pro- 
duced. This factor should be given first con- 
sideration in estimating the value of an animal 
for dairy purposes. 

3. PciHod of Lactation. — By period of lacta- 
tion is meant one complete milking period, 
usually from nine months to one 3^ear. A cow, 
as a rule, produces the most milk per day within 
a month after the calf is born, and gradually de- 
creases in amount until the secretion ceases. 
The lowest per cent, of butter fat usually is 
found at the time of greatest production, and 
increases somewhat as the flow of milk de- 
creases. 

4. Feed. — The kind and amount of feed have 
great influence on the quantity of milk pro- 
duced, but have no effect on the per cent, of 
butter fat, although it is believed otherwise by 
many dairymen. The richness of a cow's milk 
is as natural to her as is the color of her hair, 
and is affected about as little by change of 
feed. 

5. External Conditions. — Many other things 
affect the quality and the amount of milk se- 
creted — as, treatment by milker, change of 




FK;. 41. — AN AYRSHIRE COW — VIOLA DRUMMOND. 

10,000 pounds of luilk in 365 days ; test, 3.9 per cent. fat. Riverside Stock 
Farm, Woodville, N. Y. 




FIG. 42. — A HOLSTEIN COW. 
Owned by M. E. Moore, Cameron, Mo. 



174 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 175 

weather, sudden fright, milking at irregular in- 
tervals, and sickness. 

6. First and Last Milk Draum. — The first 
milk drawn from the udder at any milking is 
much poorer in quality than the last. The first 
often tests as low as i to 1.5 per cent, fat, and 
the last 8 to 9 per cent. fat. 

7. Intervals between Milkings. — When the in- 
tervals between milkings are equal in length, 
the morning and night milk is usually about the 
same in quantity and quality. When the inter- 
vals are not equal, the larger amount, but the 
lower per cent, fat, follows the longer interval 

VI. The Babcock Test. 

I . Need of a Test for Butter Fat. — M ilk varies 
greatly in richness. The writer once tested the 
milk of a herd of cows each day for a year. The 
milk of one cow averaged 2.7 per cent, butter 
fat ; that of another, 7 per cent. The variation 
in milk from different herds, although less ex- 
treme than the case mentioned, is found to be 
very marked ; hence, to do justice to all, milk is 
now bought or sold at wholesale, as a rule, by 
the test. 

The creamery or cheese factory pays a cer- 
tain price for each pound of butter fat as ascer- 
tained by the test, and not for the gallon or 
hundredweight of milk. This does away with 
all temptation to milk adulteration by watering 
or skimming when selling by the test. Milk 



176 AGRICULTURE. 

sold at retail in cities is required in most places, 
either by state or city law, to contain not less 
than a certain per cent, of butter fat — usually 3 
or 3.25 per cent. 

Problem. — A owned a cow giving milk which averaged 
2.7 per cent, butter fat. B owned a cow giving milk 
averaging 7 per cent, butter fat. 

C bought one gallon (8.4 pounds) of milk of A daily, 
from March ist to September ist, at 6 cents a quart. 

D bought milk of B for the same time, buying the 
same amount daily, at the same price per quart. If 
butter fat was worth 25 cents per pound at the cream- 
ery, how much did D gain by buying milk of B instead 
of A for the six months named ? Did he pay more or 
less than the milk would have sold for by the test, sup- 
posing that a gallon of the milk weighed 8.4 pounds? 
How much ? 

Another and possibly the greatest value of 
the test is as a means of enabling the farmer 
to judge which cows are profitable and which 
are not. The writer once fed two Jersey cows 
standing side by side the same kind of feed and 
practically the same amount to each. During 
the year one produced 145 pounds of butter, 
the other 428 pounds. 

The farmer should take into account not the 
per cent, of butter fat alone, but the amount of 
milk and the test together. The following is 
the record of two cows in the same herd: 





Pounds 


Pounds 


Per cent. 




Milk 


Butter 


Butter Fat 


No. I 


12,111 


538 


3-81 


No. 2 


6-523 


532 


7.00 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 177 

In this case it will be observed that the rich- 
ness of the milk alone is not a fair means of 
judging the value of the two cows, neither is the 
amount of milk alone. 

2. The Babcock Method. — The method gen- 
erally used for finding the amount of butter fat 
in milk and its products is known as the Bab- 
cock test, and has done more to revolutionize 
the dairy industry than any other invention ex- 
cept the centrifugal cream separator. This 
method was invented by Dr. Babcock, of the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station, in 1890. It is an 
accurate, rapid method for finding the per cent, 
of butter fat in milk, cream, skim-milk, butter- 
milk, whey, or cheese. In this system sulphuric 
acid is used to dissolve the solids other than fat 
in milk, and the fat is then separated by centri- 
fugal force, and measured on a graduated scale. 
The apparatus includes the following (Fig. 43) : 
test-bottles, 17.6 centimeter pipette, acid meas- 
ure, sulphuric acid, and a centrifugal machine 
(Fig. 44). 

(i) Test-bottles. — The test-bottles are 
made of strong glass, to withstand sudden 
changes of temperature. On the neck is a 
scale graduated from o to 10. Each whole di- 
vision represents i per cent., and is subdivided 
into five divisions, each one reading .2 percent. 
By estimating between divisions, the reading of 
the test may be made to . i per cent. 



178 



AGRICULTURE. 



g 



i 



J 



1 




cr 



FIG. 43. — GLASSWARE FUR BABCOCK TESTER. 

a — Measuring pipette, b — Milk-testing bottle, c — Cream-testing bottle 
d — Acid measure. 



(2) Pipette, — The basis of the test is 18 
grams of milk. Asa matter of convenience, the 
amount is measured and not weighed. It is 
found that a pipette holding 17.6 cubic centi- 
meters to the mark delivers 18 grams of milk. 
The pipette is filled by suction of the lips, and 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 



179 



the top of the pipette closed with the fore- 
finger. 

(3) Acid Measure. — This holds 17.5 cubic 
centimeters, and is usually made in the form of 
a cylinder with a base. 

The acid used is that known as commercial 
sulphuric acid, having a specific gravity of 1.8 1 
to 1.83. If the 
acid be a little 
weak the fact will 
be known by 
white sediment 
appearing under 
the fat column, 
and this may be 
remedied by 
usinga little more 
acid in another 
test. If the acid 

be too strong it will be indicated by the 
column of the fat being blackened and having 
black sediment below. This can be remedied 
by using somewhat less acid. Acid very much 
stronger or weaker than the standard does not 
give satisfactory results. 

(4) Centrifugal Machine. — Many forms of 
machines are made, varying in capacity from two 
to forty test-bottles. The smaller (Fig. 44) 
are made for use in small dairies, and run by 
hand ; the larger ones are used in factory work, 




FIG. 44. — HAND-POWER BABCOCK TESTER. 
This style is made especially for farm use. 



180 AGRICULTURE. 

and are run by steam-power. The bottles 
should always be arranged so that the machine 
will be balanced before running- it. 

The speed at which these machines are to be 
run depends upon the size of the revolving 
wheel, but the rim should, as a rule, move from 
60 to 70 feet per second. 

(5) Sampling Milk. — In testing milk the 
greatest care is necessary to get a fair sample 
of the lot to be tested. The entire amount 
should be poured from one vessel to another 
several times if possible, or, if this cannot be 
done, it should be stirred thoroughly from top 
to bottom. Many errors are made by not secur- 
ing the correct average sample. 

(6) Making the Test. — (a) Mix the milk thoroughly, 
and measure sample into test-bottle, (d) Add measure 
of acid by pouring carefully down side of bottle held at 
slight angle from perpendicular.* {c) Mix thoroughly 
by shaking with a rotary motion until the liquid be- 
comes an even chocolate brown color. (^) Run in a 
centrifugal machine five minutes at correct speed, (c) 
Stop and fill to base of neck with hot water or distilled 
water, 150" F. or above. (/) Whirl 3 minutes, then fill 
with hot water to 7 or 9 per cent. mark, (g) Whirl 2 
minutes and make reading. 

(7) Reading the Test. — -Care must be taken 
to keep the contents of the test-bottle hot and 
the fat entirely liquid. It is at times necessary 



* Care should be taken not to allow the acid to come in contact 
with the fingers or clothing. 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 181 

to place the bottle in hot water between whirl- 
ings before making the reading. The reading 
of the fat column is taken from the extreme top 
to the extreme bottom. 

(8) Testing Skim-milk and Buttermilk. 
— The operator of a butter or cheese factory 
should keep close watch on the losses of butter 
fat in the skim-milk and buttermilk by making 
frequent tests. For testing these products 
exactly the same method is used as described 
for testing milk, except a special kind of bottle, 
having two necks, is used, which allows finer 
readings to be made. Each small division on 
these bottles reads .05 of i per cent., and by 
estimating readings can be made to .01 of i per 
cent. 

(9) Testing Cream. — It is far more difficult 
to make an accurate test of butter fat in cream 
than in milk. Cream varies greatly in amount 
of butter fat present, ranging from 12 or 15 per 
cent, to 60 per cent, of butter fat. As the milk 
test-bottle only reads to 10 per cent., it is neces- 
sary to have a special testing-bottle for cream 
where much testing is to be done. 

Cream can be tested in ordinary milk test' 
bottles by adding two measures of water to one 
of cream, then testing the mixture in the same 
manner as for milk, multiplying the reading by 
three. When the common cream test-bottles 
are at hand which read to 30 per cent., the 17.6 



182 AGRICULTURE. 

milk pipette may be used and the testing carried 
out the same as with milk, except only about 
three-fourths the usual amount of acid is used. 

If the cream has more than 30 per cent, of 
fat it cannot be read on the scale on the bottle. 
U nder these circumstances one measure of cream 
and one of water may be mixed together, and a 
test made of the mixture, doubling the readings. 

Weio-h Out Cream for Testing. — The fore- 
going- methods of testing cream are accurate 
enough for some purposes, but when cream is 
bought and sold by the per cent, of butter fat 
the amount of cream taken as a sample for test- 
ing should be zueighcd out and not measured. 
The measuring of cream introduces several 
errors which cannot be discussed in detail here, 
but all tend to make the result of the test too 
small. The chief error affecting accuracy of 
measuring cream is the difference in specific 
gravity of cream and milk. The i 7.6 c.c. pipette 
delivers 18 grams of milk, but as cream is lighter 
than milk, does not deliver 18 grams of cream. 

To avoid all these errors, small balancers are 
used, and 18 grams of cream weighed out into 
the test-bottle. 

i)'.— CREAM. 

I. Separation of Cream. 

Cream is that portion of milk into which most 
of the fat globules have been gathered. It has 
the same constituents as milk, but in a different 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 183 

proportion, due to the large amount of fat 
present. 

Cream is separated from milk for food pur- 
poses, and as a matter of convenience and econ- 
omy in making butter. Butter can be made, 
and is made in some countries, by churning 
milk. Cream may contain from 12 to 60 per 
cent, of butter fat. Cream as sold at retail 
usually has from 18 to 20 per cent., and a very 
rich cream has from 35 to 45 per cent, of fat. 
The apparent thickness of cream is not a reli- 
able means of judging its real quality. Cream 
is separated from milk by taking advantage of 
the difference in specific gravity between the 
fat globules and the remainder of the milk. 
We have two general systems of separating 
cream. Both take advantage of the difference 
in specific gravity already mentioned. 

I. By Gravity. — If milk be allowed to remain 
undisturbed in a vessel of any kind, the fat glob- 
ules, being slightly lighter than the other con- 
stituents, gradually rise to the top. This is the 
oldest and, until recent years, the only method 
of separation in use. 

There are two methods of gravity creaming 
in common use : shallow pans, and deep setting. 

(i) Shallow Pans. — Although the oldest 
and least effective in every way, this is still the 
most common method used in many localities. 
As generally used, the milk is placed in shallow 



184 AGRICULTURE. 

pans or crocks, kept at a rather low tempera- 
ture, as in a cellar, until the cream has risen. It 
is then skimmed off with a flat skimmer. 

The conditions most favorable for this system 
is a layer of milk not over four inches deep and 
cooled rapidly to a temperature of about 60° F., 
and allowed to stand 36 hours before skimming. 
This separation of the cream is not very com- 
plete by this method, and in this respect it ranks 
lowest of all systems used. On an average, 
about one-fourth of the butter fat is lost in the 
skim-milk when using the shallow pans. The 
quality of cream for butter-making purpose is 
also the poorest. On account of the large sur- 
face exposed to the air during the rising of the 
cream, any obnoxious odors of the atmosphere 
are readily absorbed, and this exposure also 
makes conditions favorable for the formation of 
strong, undesirable tastes in the cream and but- 
ter. Cream from this system is in condition 
for food purposes only when skimmed off much 
sooner than would be done when used for butter- 
making. 

(2) Deep Setting. — The deep-setting system 
consists in placing the milk in cans about twenty 
inches deep and six inches in diameter (Fig. 45), 
set in water which should be kept at 40° F., or 
below, for twelve to twenty-four hours. At the 
end of this time skimming is done by using a 
conical dipper, or drawing off first the skim- 



186 AGRICULTURE. 

milk and then the cream from a faucet in the 
bottom of the can (Fig. 45). This system is 
in general use in some localities, and with 
general satisfaction. The deep setting ranks, 
both in thoroughness of separation and quality 
of cream for food and butter-making, next to 
the centrifugal separator. Under proper con- 
ditions, by its use 80 to 90 per cent, of the 
butter fat should be secured in the cream. The 
cream from this system is rather low in but- 
ter fat, as a rule testing from 18 to 20 per 
cent. fat. 

(3) Dilution. — Within recent years an old 
plan of diluting milk with cold water has been 
revived, and devices for using this method have 
been sold very extensively in many places under 
the name of "water separators," "aquatic sep- 
arators," etc. The general plan is to add cold 
water equal in volume to the milk. Instead of 
ranking with the cream separator, in whose name 
they are wrongfully given, they rank with the 
shallow pan in thoroughness of separation. As 
a rule, from 20 to 50 per cent, of the butter fat 
is lost in the skim-milk. The diluted condition 
of the skim-milk is another disadvantage. The 
quality of the cream is better than that of the 
shallow pan, and it is more convenient. 

2. By Centrifugal Force. — The centrifugal 
separator (Fig. 46) has revolutionized the dairy 
industry within recent years. The first centri- 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 



187 



fugal separators were put in practical use in 
Europe about 1879, but were not in general use 
until ten years later. 

At present they are considered indispensable 





BOWLOPEN 



KH;. 46. — A MODERN HAND-rOWER CREAM SEPARATOR. 

This separator has a capacity of 450 pounds of milk per hour. The bowl on the 
right generates the centrifugal force by revolving rapidly. 



to the successful dairyman. In the separator 
the centrifugal force generated by a rapidly re- 
volving bowl takes the place of gravity and acts 
with a force very much greater. The milk flows 
into the revolving bowl (Fig. 46) in a continu- 



188 AGRICULTURE. 

ous Stream, while the cream flows from one 
opening and the skim-milk from another. 

As the milk flows into the revolving bowl, it 
is acted upon by centrifugal force, and fiies to 
the outside wall of the bowl. The skim-milk, 
being heavier than the cream, is forced outward 
with greater force, and seeks the outside of the 
bowl, forcing the lighter cream toward the cen- 
ter. Near the outer edge of the bowl are open- 
ings of small tubes, into which the skim-milk 
flows and through them passes out of the bowl. 
Near the center of the bowl is the opening of a 
small tube, which carries out a constant stream 
of cream. 

A number of conditions affect the thorough- 
ness of separation with a centrifugal separator, 
especially the speed of machine, the tempera- 
ture of milk, and the rate of inflow of milk. 
The most favorable temperature for separating 
milk is from 85° to 100° F. When the temper- 
ature falls much below 80°, the loss of butter 
fat with the skim-milk begins to increase. Some 
types of separators are much more sensitive to 
low temperature than are others. 

The proportion of the milk taken out as 
cream can be changed in most separators with- 
out changing the thoroughness of separation 
by slightly turning what is called the cream 
screw. By this means most separators may be 
adjusted to separate from 10 to 50 per cent, of 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 189 

butter fat. The centrifugal separator should 
remove about 98 per cent, of the butter fat in 
the form of cream. The cream from the sepa- 
rator, being removed while the milk is sweet, is 
in the best condition for food or for butter- 
making purposes. Separators vary in capacity 
from 150 to 4,000 pounds of milk per hour. 

Problem. — A farmer feeds lo hogs 5 gallons (42.5 
pounds) of skim-milk daily from June ist to December 
ist. What will be his loss, supposing that butter aver- 
aged 18 cents per pound, and he sells his hogs for $5.00 
per hundred pounds, if he separated his cream by the 
gravity process — 

(a) With shallow pans ? 

(d) With cans 20 inches deep? 

(c) If he used the centrifugal separator? 

{d) By which method of separation would he lose 
most, and how much more than by each of the other 
two methods ? 

II. Ripening Cream. 

It is a well-known fact that milk which is al- 
lowed to stand in a warm place for a few hours 
begins to sour and finally coagulates. This is a 
process of fermentation, and is due to the 
growth of an immense number of living organ- 
isms called bacteria. These bacteria are not in 
the milk when it leaves the animal body, but 
gain access from many sources, such as unclean 
utensils and dust from the air. 

The souring fermentation is undesirable in 
milk to be used for food, but is a necessary part 



190 AGRICULTURE. 

of making the best butter. The consumers of 
butter prefer that it have the peculiar taste 
which is characteristic of butter made from 
soured or fermented cream. Butter churned 
from sweet cream is insipid in flavor and is not 
desired by many; furthermore, it does not keep 
as well as that from soured cream. For these 
reasons cream is allowed to sour before being- 
churned into butter. This condition is usually 
brought about within twenty-four hours or less 
by leaving the cream moderately warm, usually 
from 60° to 70°. The most approved method 
is to add what is called a starter, to cause the 
desired kind of souring to begin. This may be 
likened to the use of yeast in bread-making. 
When the proper condition of sourness is 
reached the cream is ready for churning. This 
stage is detected by taste and appearance, or in 
factory work by an accurate test. The condition 
may be described as a mild, sour taste, and a 
somewhat thickened or granular appearance of 
the cream. 

C— BUTTER. 

I. Coloring Butter. 

The natural color produced, when cows are 
on fresh grass, is the standard butter color. 
This shade should be maintained throucrhout 
the year, and this requires the use of artificial 
coloring part of the time. Coloring made for 
this purpose is a common article in the markets. 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 



191 



The best coloring used in butter is made from 
annotto, a vegetable product, and is entirely 
harmless. There can be no objection to color- 
ing butter, as it deceives no one and pleases the 
eye of the consumer. Butter without artificial 
coloring is almost unsalable in most markets 
durinof the winter months. The colorine-matter 
is added to the cream before churnine- The 
coloring-matter is dissolved in an oil which unites 
with the fat of the butter and does not color the 
buttermilk. 

II. Kinds of Churns. 

A large number of churns have been invented, 
but none is better suited for the small dairy than 
the common barrel churn 
(Fig. 47). Churns with 
dashes, or other means of 
agitating the cream violently, 
are objectionable, on account 
of loss in churnincr and effect 
upon the quality of butter. 

Within recent years a new 
type of churn, called " com- 

1 . 1 1 , 1 M I-'IC. 47. — BARREL CHURN. 

bmed churn and worker. Adapted for farm use. 
has been put on the market. 
These churns are now used almost exclusively 
in large butter factories, and in many dairies. 
As the name indicates, this machine churns 
the cream, and later works the butter in the 
same apparatus. 




192 AGRICULTURE. 

III. Churning^. 

Churning is the gathering together of the fat 
globules into a mass called butter. This may 
be accomplished by any kind of agitation violent 
enough to cause the fat globules to come together 
with some force. 

I. Effect of Temperature. — One of the most 
important factors to be considered in connection 
with churning is the temperature. Temperature 
controls, to a large extent, the time of churning, 
the loss of butter in the buttermilk, and that 
important quality of the butter called the grain. 
The higher the temperature of the cream the 
softer the butter fat becomes, and the more 
readily it unites, shortening the time of churn- 
ing. The temperature should be so regulated 
that the time required for churning will be be- 
tween one-half hour and one hour. No definite 
temperature can be given as applicable to all 
cases, as it must vary somewhat with the thick- 
ness of the cream, season of the year, and period 
of lactation. The best rule is to churn at as low 
a temperature as it is possible to have the butter 
form within the desired time. Butter factories, as 
a rule, churn cream from 50*^ to 54*^ F, in summer 
and from 54"^ to 58° in winter. (Smaller dairies 
usually churn at somewhat higher temperature.) 

The greatest improvement that could be made 
at a small expense in the method of butter- 
making^ on the averagfe farm would be the use 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 193 

of a thermometer, and a proper control of the 
churning temperature. Butter churned too 
warm lacks firm texture, and is said to be "weak 
bodied" and softens easily in a warm tempera- 
ture. Churning at too low a temperature re- 
sults in unnecessarily lengthening the time of 
churning, with no advantage gained in the con- 
dition of the butter. 

2. Other Factors Affecting Tiine of Churn- 
ing. — The per cent, of butter fat has an impor- 
tant bearing upon the time of churning. A 
cream with a low per cent, of butter fat churns 
more slowly than does a richer cream, and re- 
quires a higher temperature. Cream from cows 
that have been giving milk a long time churns 
harder than cream from fresh cows, and requires 
a somewhat higher churning temperature, as the 
butter fat of the former is harder, the globules 
smaller, and the milk more viscid or sticky, mak- 
ing it more difficult for the fat globules to ad- 
here togfether. 

Cream from cows producing large fat glo- 
bules churns a trifle easier than does that from 
those producing small ones, and maybe churned 
at a lower temperature. 

Cream produced from dry feed churns more 
slowly than that produced from green feed, and 
should be churned at a higher temperature, on 
account of the hardness of the fat and more vis- 
cid condition of the milk. 



194 AGRICULTURE. 

3. When to Stop ChiLvning. — Churning should 
be stopped when the butter granules are about 
the size of larofe orrains of wheat. Churnino- 
until the butter is p-athered into a mass, as is 
often clone, makes the removal of the butter- 
milk impossible, resulting in poor keeping qual- 
ity and injured grain of the butter, 

IV. Washing Butter. 

When churning is completed and the butter- 
milk removed, the next thing to be done is to 
wash the butter. For this purpose clean, cold 
water, at a temperature somewhat colder than 
that at which the cream was churned, is used 
About two-thirds as much water as there was 
cream is added to the butter, and the churn re- 
volved slowly for six or eight turns. It is then 
stopped and the cold water drawn off. The ob- 
ject of washing is to remove the buttermilk from 
the butter. 

V. Salting. 

Butter is salted as a matter of taste. The 
amount of salt used may vary somewhat, but, 
as a rule, it is from three-quarters to seven- 
eighths of an ounce to each pound of butter. 
The salt used should be of the best quality, and 
made especially for this purpose. The act of 
mixing the salt with the butter is known as 
working the butter. 



MILK AND ITS CARE. 



195 



VI. Working Butter. 

The objects of working are to expel a portion 
of the water, to mix thoroughly the salt with the 
butter, and to get the butter into compact, mar- 
ketable form (Fig. 48). 

The combined churn and worker runs the 
butter between slowly 
revolving rollers, and 
is used almost exclu- 




sively in large butter 
factories. The work- 
ingr is continued until 
the salt is evenly dis- 
tributed and the grain "g. 48.— farm dairy butter- 

/. 1 T 1 WORKER. 

01 the butter shows ^ ,,, u .. ^ 

One of the best tor farm use. 

the right stage has 

been reached. At this stag^e the (granules of 
butter almost lose their identity and string out 
slightly when the butter is broken, instead of 
breaking straight across. Overworking butter 
spoils its grain, and insufficient working results 
in uneven or streaked color of the butter, 
known as mottling. The latter is a very common 
and a very objectionable fault in butter. 

VII. Composition of Butter. 

The average composition of butter is about as 
follows : Fat, 85 per cent.; casein, i per cent.; 
salt, 2.5 per cent.; water, 11.5 per cent. 

The composition varies considerably, espe- 
cially the fat and water. Butter of good quality 



19G AGRICULTURE. 

seldom contains less than 80 per cent, of fat or 
more than 15 per cent, of water. 

VIII. Overrun. 

The term "overrun" is used to express the 
excess of butter made over the amount of butter 
fat contained in the cream or milk. The Bab- 
cock test shows the amount of pure butter fat. 
When this is made into butter, water, salt, and 
casein are present, in addition to the fat. Under 
the best conditions of handling, the butter should 
exceed the butter fat about one-sixth, but may 
vary greatly. The common method of estimat- 
ing the yield of butter from the Babcock test is 
to find the total number of pounds of butter fat, 
and add one-sixth of its weight. This is the 
plan used by experiment stations and dairymen 
keeping records of the production of individual 
cows. 

IX. Packing and Marketing. 

After the butter is thoroughly worked, it is 
next packed in form for market. The style of 
package will vary with the market for which the 
product is intended. 

When large quantities are to be shipped some 
distance, various sized tubs (holding from ten to 
sixty pounds) are used. These tubs are made 
of ash or spruce, and the sides are lined before 
use with a piece of parchment paper, a circle of 
the same being placed in the bottom of the tub 
and another on the top. For local sale, various 



198 AGRICULTURE. 

packages are used — as, different sizes of wooden 
pails, glass or earthen jars, and paper boxes; 
but the one most favored is the rectaneular 
pound print wrapped in parchment paper. 
These are made rapidly by means of molds de- 
signed for the purpose, and when once adjusted 
print very accurate pounds (Fig. 49). 

Z:*.— REFERENCES. 

" Dairying at Home and Abroad." Year-book, 1902. 

" Utilization of By-products of the Dairy." Year-book, 1897. 

"Care of Dairy Utensils." Year-book, 1896. 

"Care of MilR on the Farm." Farmers' Bulletin 63, United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

" Facts About Milk." Farmers' Bulletin 42, United States 
Department of Agriculture. 

" Feeding the Dairy Cow." Bulletin Missouri Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

" Milk and Its Product." Wing. 1900. 10. 

" Testing Milk and Its Products." Farrington & Woll. 1900. 
Mendota Book Co., Madison, Wis. 

" Dairy Bacteriology." Russell. 1899. Madison, Wis. 

" Butter Making on the Farm." Farmers' Bulletin sy. 

"Milk as Food." Farmers' Bulletin 74. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER IX. 

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 

^.—PROPAGATION FROM SEEDS. 

SEP.US AND SEEDLINGS. 

I. The Seed-coat. 

Str.Jifictition. 

II. The Testing of Seeds. 

1. Jmpo' taiice of Seed-testing, 

2. Purity. 

3. Vitality. 

Factors influencing vitality are : 
(i) Time of Gathering. 

(2) Condition of Parent Plant. 

(3) Age 

(4) Method of Preservation. 

(II. Germination of Seeds. 

A stiui}" of tiie conditions for germination 

1. 'xei.iperaturc. 

2. Moisture. 

3. Atr. 

4. Geotropisni. 

5. Light. 

6 Otiier Conditions. 

IV. Treatment of Fine Seeds. 
V. Variation of Plants. 

1. Causes of Variation. 

(1) Difference in Food Supply 

(2) Climatic Conditions. 

(3) Sexual Reproduction. 

2. Fixation of Variation. 

(i) Means. 

{a) Natural Selection. 
{b) Artificial Selection. 

199 



200 AGRICULTURE. 

(2) Time Depends Upon: 

(a) Tendency of the Plant to Vary. 
{l>) Rate of Development. 

^.—PROPAGATION FROM BUDS. 

I. Cutting. 

1. Green IJuwd Ci/ flings. 

(i) Leaf Cuttings. 
(2) Stem Cuttings. 

2. Hard-wood Cuttings. 

(i) Stem Cuttings. 
(2) Root Cuttings. 

II. Budding. 

1. Spring Budding. 

2. Late Slimmer or Early Fall Budding. 

III. Grafting. 

General principles of. 
Subdivisions of. 

1. With Reference to Position of the Scion Upon the 

Stock. 
(i) Root-grafting. 

{a) Whole-root Grafting. 

{b) Piece-root Grafting. 
(2) Stem-grafting. 

{a) Top-grafting. 

{b) Crown-grafting. 

2. With Reference to Insertion of Scion Into the Stock. 

(i) Tongue or Whip Graft. 
(2) Cleft Graft. 

IV. Layering. 

1. Simple Layering. 

2. Mound Layering. 

3. Pot Layering. 

C— REFERENCES. 



CHAPTER IX. 

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 

The basic principle of all horticultural opera- 
tions is a thorough hiowledge of tJie plant and 
its environment. This necessitates a careful 
study of the nature and conditions of the seed- 
ling- throughout its development from the em- 
bryo to the adult plant. 

^.—PROPAGATION FROM SEEDS. 

SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. 

I. The Seed-coat. 

Examine the outer covering of a number of dif- 
erent seeds — as, the corn, bean, squash, peach, 
canna, and locust — noting carefully the difference 
in their textures. If these seeds be planted at 
the same time and under the same conditions, 
they will show equally as great variations in the 
time which they require for germination. 

In nature, the hard, tough seeds of many or- 
chard and forest trees — as, apple, peach, and 
hickory — are buried beneath the litter of the 
orchard or forest, where they are subjected to 
winter snows and changes of temperature until 
their outer coverings are softened or cracked, so 
that the embryonic plant may develop, while 
the seeds of such species as the catalpa (Fig. 
50), honey-locust, and Kentucky coffee-bean re- 



203 AGRICULTURE. 

main on the trees all winter. This indicates 
that a cold, moist ground would be disastrous to 
them ; consequently, these seeds are shed in the 
warm days of spring, the higher temperature 
unsealing the waxy covering of the honey-locust, 
and the spring winds widely disseminating the 
delicately winged seeds of the catalpa. By fol- 
lowing these hints of nature, man may perform 
and regulate these processes almost at will. 

Sir atiji cation is a very practical and simple 
method of preparing many seeds having a hard 
or tough outer covering for germination. By 
this means the seeds are protected from mice, 
chipmunks, squirrels, etc., and at the same time 
given the conditions furnished by nature. 

Directions for stratifying seeds: {a) In October or 
November take the seeds of cherry, apple, peach, plum, 
hickory, and walnut, which have been collected during 
the summer and autumn. 

[b) Place, in a shallow box, a layer of sand, leaf- 
mould, or even garden soil, then a layer of the seeds; in 
this way alternate a layer of sand with one of seeds until 
the box is full. 

[c) Sink the box in the ground in some shady place, 
and leave uncovered, exposed to the winter snows, rains, 
and frosts until the following spring. 

[d) When the weather permits, plant thickly in rows 
in well-prepared soil. (See " Tillage.") 

II. The Testing of Seeds. 

I. The Iinportance of Seed-testing prepara- 
tory to planting, and the simple methods by 
which it may be done, are not generally realized. 




FIG. 50. CATALPA TREE. 

Showing seed pods intact in February. 



204 AGRICULTURE. 

Often many annoyances and disappointments 
would be averted, and much time and labor 
saved, if proper attention were given to the 
quality of the seeds sown. Bad seeds not only 
result in partial or total failure of the crop, but 
may be the means of introducing noxious weeds 
— as, the plantains. A field is frequently sown 
in bracted plantain when it was meant to be 
sown in red clover. The principal points to be 
considered in determining the quality of seeds 
diVe. pitrt^y and vitality. 

2. Purity. — Various impurities may exist, 
either incidentally, or purposely, in commercial 
seeds — such as inert matter, or seeds of other 
useful or injurious plants — any of which would 
make the seeds more expensive if not altogether 
objectionable. Purity of seeds may be tested 
by carefully examining with the eye — or lens, if 
necessary — a fair sample of the seeds to be 
planted. 

3. Vitality of Seeds. — In the testing of seeds 
it is not safe to rely upon general appearances 
— such as form, color, and odor — but the seeds 
must be actually tested to be certain of their 
vitality. 

Experiment 15. — [a) From each kind of seeds de- 
sired, select at random a certain numben according to 
the quantity to be planted. 

(J)) If the seeds are large, it may be advantageous to 
soak them a few hours. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 205 

(c) Saturate several thicknesses of heavy blotting- 
paper, and fit them into shallow flats or plates ; now 
place the seeds directly upon this moist paper. (If very 
fine seeds, put them upon squares of cheese-cloth spread 
upon the paper.) Cover the flats with pieces of window- 
glass, leaving crevices to admit air. Each day note 
carefully, and remove the number of seeds which sprout. 

{d) What per cent, of seeds was vital ? What does 
the ti///e required for sprouting indicate regarding their 
vitality? Could the same results be expected from out- 
door conditions? Would a farmer be justified in plant- 
ing the seeds from which these samples were taken ? 
Does not this test warrant the revision of the old adage, 
"Taste and try before you buy," to "Test and try be- 
fore you buy," in this case ? 

Factors influencing- the vitality of seeds are : 
(i) The time of gathering; (2) the condition 
of the parent plant ; (3) the age of the seeds, 
and (4) the method of their preservation. 

Experiment 16. — (a) Take seeds of several garden 
or farm crops — as, wheat, corn, beans, peas, radishes, let- 
tuce, and apples — which have been gathered at intervals 
during the growing season, so that two stages (imma- 
turity, maturity) in the development of the seeds may 
be represented. 

(d) Note the date of gathering, the appearance of the 
seeds, and the condition of the parent plant at each of 
these stages. 

(c) Plant those of each stage in a separate row and 
label the rows. 

(d) Observe, compare, and tabulate the time of appear- 
ance of each seedling. 

{e) From your results in this experiment, what effect 
do you conclude the ^t'me of gatherijig has upon the vital- 



206 AGRICULTURE. 

ity of seeds ? Why ? Wliat effect has the condition of 
the parent plant upon the vitalit)'^ of tlie seeds? 

(3) Age of Seeds. — For the success of the 
following experiment time and patience are the 
chief requisites. The work may be begun in 
one class, and continued by each successive 
class as long as any of the seeds show vitality, 
or some student may elect this work through- 
out his school course. 

Experiment 17. — (</) To make a careful and rather 
exhaustive study of the effect of age upon the vitality of 
seeds, two or three hundred of each kind of farm and 
garden seeds of the vicinity should be collected, each 
kind placed in a large-mouthed bottle, and labeled as 
to kind, date, and place of collection, and placed in a 
case provided for that purpose, together with a blank- 
book for a permanent record. 

(^) Test each kind of seed according to Experiment 
15, discarding any which do not show strong vitality, 
replacing them with new material as soon as possible, 
and relabeling. 

(f) Repeat this test each successive year as long as 
any seeds show vitality. 

(d) When any sample of seeds is no longer vital, dis- 
card the seeds and replace them uith freshly tested 
ones, labeling as at first for the use of subsequent 
classes. 

{e) Carefully note each year the number of seeds of 
each kind which germinate, and the time in hours re- 
quired for their germination. 

(/) What injuries may arise from retarded germina- 
tion ? Place your data in the permanent record, and 
compare with the data of previous years. This record 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 207 

should eventually show the age at which the various 
kinds of seeds may be profitably planted. 

(4) The Method of Preservation of seeds 
is of importance. Seeds should be freed from 
any pulpy material, carefully dried under mod- 
erate temperature, labeled with name and date, 
and stored in a cool, dry place which is abso- 
lutely mouse-proof. 

III. Germination of Seeds. 

A study of the conditions necessary for the 
germination of seeds. 

1. Te))iperature. 

Experiment 18. — {a) Plant separate groups of similar, 
uniform-sized seeds of any garden or farm crop in jars 
or pots containing some moist pourous material — as, 
sawdust, sand, or moss 

{I)) Place these jars in different parts of the building 
which have decidedly different temperatures — as, a north 
window, a south window, near a register, and in a 
basement. 

{c) Record the temperature at each of these places each 
morning, noon, and night. 

(d) Note the time of the appearance of each group of 
seedlings, and determine the time required for germina- 
tion. 

((f) Record the data thus obtained in tabular form. 

(/) Compare. What does the experiment teach? 

2. Moisture — Soaking seeds: effect of upon germi- 
nation. 

Experiment 19. — {a) Select a given number of seeds 
of various kinds — as, corn, wheat, beans, squash, and 
tomato. 

(/;>) Divide each kind into two lots. Plant one of these 



g08 AGRICULTURE. 

lots (each kind at the proper depth) in a box of sand; 
the other lot place in a shallow dish of water, and soak 
for ten or twelve hours; then plant these seeds in the 
sand at the same depth and under the same conditions 
as the first lot. 

(c) Note and tabulate the time of the appearance of 
the seedlings of the soaked and unsoaked seeds of each 
kind. 

(d) Was the time of germination of each kind short- 
ened by the soaking? Were any seeds damaged by 
soaking? 

Experiment 20. — (a) Select seeds, as in the above ex- 
periment. Soak one-half of each kind, as before. 

(b) Now separate the soaked and the unsoaked seeds 
each into three lots. 

(c) Plant one lot of each (the soaked and unsoaked) 
in dry soil, another in moist soil, and the third in wef 
soil, other conditions being the same for each. 

(d) Tabulate, and compare results. 

(e) What does this experiment teach concerning the 
condition of the soil with regard to moisture at the time 
of planting seeds? 

3 ^^'^■ 

Experiment 21. — (a) Fill a pot with moisf sand or 
mellow garden soil, and another pot with clay or loam 
that has been 7oet and well stirred until about the con- 
sistency of paste. Now plant in each pot several 
beans, peas, or grains of corn, pressing them in and 
carefully smoothing over the top. 

{b) Place both pots under the same external con- 
ditions. If the puddle clay or loam cracks, moisten it, 
and again press the surface smooth. 

{c) Observe and note results. What fills the inter- 
stices in the jar of moist sand or soil ? What in the 
puddled clay? Do the seeds in each pot germinate 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 209 

equally well ? Why? What condition is present in one 
pot that is not in the other? 

4. Geotropism. 

Experiment 22. — {a^ Plant in moist sand or sawdust 
a number of squash seeds and grains of corn in various 
positions — some with either side down, some with either 
edge down, and some with either end down. 

{b) Label each group as to position in planting. 

{c) After two or three days, examine to see if any of 
the seeds have sprouted. 

(</) If so, note carefully the direction of radicle and 
of plumule. I Draw. 

(e) Label according to position, and name all parts. 

(/) Now plant again, with the position of the seed 
reversed. Repeat daily (</),(<'), and (/) for several days. 

(^'■) Does the position of the seed when planted have 
any effect upon the development of the embryo ? Ex- 
plain. ■ How do the results of your daily observations 
compare with reference to the direction of growth of 
radicle and plumule?* 

Experiment 23. — Stevens' "Introduction to Botany" 
gives the following experiment in connection with geot- 
ropism: " Remove the glass front and the hands from a 
cheap alarm-clock. Provide a soft pine block about an 
inch square, whittle one end to a taper, and drill a small 
hole into it, so that it will slip through the opening of 
the dial face and tightly over the hour-hand spindle. 
Fasten a Petri dish to the outer face of the pine block 
by a melted mixture of one-third beeswax and two- 
thirds rosin, taking care to center the dish with the 
hour-hand spindle. Pack moist pine sawdust into the 
dish level with the surface, and press soaked grains of 
corn into the sawdust, not very tightly, broad face down, 
but do not cover them with sawdust. Put on the cover 



* For parts of seed and seedling, see any gooJ Botany. 



310 



AGRICULTURE. 



of the Petri dish and hold it in position by means of 
clips made of spring brass wire (Figs. 51, 52). (See 
Stevens' " Botany," p. 25.) Wind the clock, and set it in 
its normal position — that is, with the hour-hand spindle 




m\ Stevens' "Introduction to Botany." Copyright, 1902, by D. C. Heatl & Co. 

KIGS. 51 AND 52. — SEEDLINGS OF INDIAN CORN 



Grown in sawdust in a Petri dish 
while revolving by clockwork one 
revolution per hour. The axis of 
revolution is horizontal, the plane of 
the dish vertical. Gravity as a direct- 
ive agent is eliminated, and roots and 
shoots grow out in the direcftion in 
which they happen to be pointed. 



Grown in sawdust in a Petri dish 
which was kept stationary in a ver- 
tical position. Gravity is acting as a 
directive agent, and the roots find and 
take the downward and the shoots 
the upward direction, irrespective of 
the directions toward which they 
were originally pointing. 



horizontal. Prepare seeds in another dish in exactly 
the same manner, but fasten it so that it will stand ver- 
tically on its edge. 

In the first experiment the directive effect of gravity 
would be neutralized by the revolution of the dish, 
while in the second gravity may exercise its usual influ- 
ence on the direction taken by root and shoot. Compare 
results as to direction of radicle and plumule.* 



* Since the seeds are not covered by the sawdust, their progress 
in germination may be observed at any time without interrupting 
the experiment. The position occupied by the parts of the seed- 
lings can easily be recorded for any period by tracing with ink 
on the cover immediately over them. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 211 

5. Light. 

Experiment 24. — {a) Soak a number of different kinds 
of seeds for a few hours and divide each kind into lots. 

(I)) Place each lot on a square of moist flannel laid 
upon moist sand, and cover with a glass tumbler. 

ic) Now cover one of these tumblers with a heavy- 
paper cone, the inside of which has been blackened by 
simply holding it over a lighted lamp. 

{d) Watch the seeds in the uncovered tumbler. As 
soon as any growth is shown, remove the paper cone 
from the other tumbler, and compare the growth made 
in the dark with that made in the light for each kind of 
seeds. 

(<?) Is light a necessary condition for germination ? 

6. Other Conditiotis. 

Experiment 25. — {a) Soak for a few hours a number 
of peas and Lima beans. Plant a definite number of 
each kind of these soaked seeds at the same time in 
moist sand at various depths, from one-half inch to four 
inches, labeling as to depth. 

ip) Note carefully the appearance of each kind of 
seedlings planted at the various depths. 

(r) Within a few days after the appearance of the first 
seedlings, observe (i) the growth made by the peas 
planted at the various depths, and compare; (2) that 
made by the beans at the various depths; (3) the relative 
growth made by the peas and beans. 

(a') Does the depth of planting have any effect upon 
the time of germination ? Upon the certainty of germina- 
tion ? By what external conditions is the germination 
influenced ? What relation does the development of the 
seedlings themselves bear to the depth of planting? 

IV. Treatment of Fine Seeds. 

Where practicable, very small seeds should 
be sown indoors and given special care. 



212 AGRICULTURE. 

Directions: For this purpose, use shallow boxes — 
about four inches in depth — which have been soaked 
in lime-water, or water containing a little formaldehyde, 
or whitewashed. 

(a) Fill these with a soil prepared by carefully mixing 
equal parts of sand, leaf-mould, and garden loam. Well- 
rotted manure may be substituted for leaf-mould, and 
rotted sod, cut up fine and sifted, for leaf-mould and loam, 
It is well to add to this a very small quantity of wood 
ashes. Sow the seeds on the surface of the soil and press 
them in. 

(^) Apply moisture by very lightly sprinkling with a 
small sprinkler or by hand. Cover with window-glass, 
providing for the admission of air. 

(c) As soon as true leaves are well formed, they may 
be transplanted into inch pots, and repotted into larger- 
sized pots as often as is necessary. Before planting in 
the open ground the plants should be hardened in a 
cold frame (see under " Cuttings "). 

V. Variation of Plants. 

Though the offspring- of plants is like the 
parent in kind, yet individual members of the 
species are not exactly alike. Their differ- 
ences are often scarcely perceptible; but if 
various members of the same species in a given 
locality be compared, shades of differences may 
be seen. For example, the little spring beauty 
(^Clatonia virginica) shows much variation in 
the number and size of its petals. Their color 
also ranges from white to deep pink. The dog's- 
tooth violet {Erythronium albidu7n) shows like 
morphological differences. 

Throughout nature these variations exist, the 
offspring differing from its progenitor. Among 



314 AGRICULTURE. 

the higher plants those species covering a wide 
range show greater variation in their individual 
members than species more restricted in their 
distribution — conditions which might be ex- 
pected: the more diverse the environment, the 
more variable the individual. Thus, the luxu- 
riantly growing plant at the base of a moun- 
tain varies greatly from its dwarfed brother at 
the summit (Figs. 53, 54). On the other hand, 
the more variable the plant the more easily it 
can adapt itself to varying conditions; hence, 
the more widely it is distributed. 

I. Causes of Variation. — Variation is not the 
result of chance, yet the detailed differences in 
varieties of the same species can only be sug- 
gested. 

In every individual two factors are manifest: 
the nature of the organism, and the nature of 
the external conditions. Nevertheless, the same 
conditions do not always produce the same re- 
sults, for similar varieties may be "produced* 
from the same species under external conditions 
of life as different as can well be conceived, and, 
on the other hand, dissimilar varieties may be 
produced under apparently the same condi- 
tions." Variation, then, may be due, for the 
most part, to the innate tendency of the organ- 
ism to vary, the causes of which are not fully 
understood. However, some of the causes of 



* Darwin's Origin of Species, p. 127. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 215 

variation among plants seem to be : (i) differ- 
ence in food supply ; (2) climatic conditions ; 
(3) sexual reproduction. 

None of these causes would be of any avail 
were it not for the fact that selection preserves 
and accumulates all variations which are benefi- 
cial, and discards those which are detrimental to 
the organism. 

(i) Difference in Food Supply. — Every one 
has noticed in different fields of grain, or even 
in the same field, that in some portion the plants 
were sickly and stunted, while in others they 
were strong and well developed. One of the 
many conditions which may cause this variation 
(in development) is a difference in the supply 
of proper food. 

This lack of the necessary constituents for the 
growth of this particular plant may be due to 
the exhaustion of these elements by former 
crops, or to the poorness or thinness of the soil. 
(See Chapter VII.) 

(2) Climatic Conditions. — Variation in cli- 
mate tends to modify the structure and habits 
of plants, their fruitfulness, and the color and 
flavor of their fruit. On approaching colder 
climates plants become smaller and more thickly 
set with leaves, as is illustrated by the same 
species growing at the base and at the summit 
of a mountain (Figs. 53, 54), as the spruce and 
fir of the Rockies. 



21fi AGRICULTURE. 

(3) Sexual Reproduction is probably the 
most important of the causes of variation in 
plants. This is exemplified by those lower forms 
which usually reproduce asexually, since they 
show very little variation in many generations. 
On the contrary, among higher plants, where 
reproduction is ordinarily sexual, the offspring 
may vary greatly in one generation. (Thus, a 
field planted in white or yellow corn may pro- 
duce many variously colored ears.) Hundreds 
of examples of both wild and cultivated plants 
may be given. * 

This variation is due, in a great measure, to 
the fact that each organism is the product of 
two separate elements the male and the female. 
And each of these was itself a product of two 
separate elements. In this way the whole an- 
cestral line was developed. These characteristic 
differences are the more marked when the male 
and the female elements are' derived from differ- 
ent individuals ; for in the offspring is made 
possible any of the characteristics, not only of 
the immediate parents, but of the entire ances- 
try of each. Thus, cross-fertilization becomes a 
potent factor in producing variation. 

2. Fixation of Variatio?i .—V^h.Q.n variations 
are beneficial to the plant in its present environ- 



* " No case is on record of a variable organism ceasing to varv 
under cultivation. Our oldest cultivated plants, such as wheat, 
still yield new varieties." — Origin of Speciesy Darwin, p. 6. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. o^^ 

ment, Natiu^al Selection preserves and accumu- 
lates them ; when they are not beneficial, Natural 
Selection discards them ; that is, tJie plant pos- 
sessing these beneficial variations has a better 
chance to snrznve and perpetuate the species, 
zuhile the plant whose variations are less bene- 
ficial will probably perish ; hence, that variation 
is not perpetuated. 

Everywhere in nature the competent are pre- 
served and the incompetent are discarded. In 
other words, the power of an organism to var)- 
is the measure of its adaptability to environ- 
ment. It is by the preservation, transmission, 
and accumulation of these variations that new 
varieties are formed among uncultivated plants. 
Man takes advantage of this fact, and by artifi- 
cial selection preserves those characteristics of 
the plant which are beneficial to hint, thus orig- 
inating new varieties among cultivated plants. 

It takes many generations for these varieties 
to become fixed types. The time required for 
the fixation of types, however, depends upon 
several conditions, one of which is (i) the ten- 
dency of the plant to vary. The more variable 
the plant, the more difficult will be the fixation 
of the type ; for, although it will be easier to 
find individual plants having the desired char- 
acteristics, on account of this variability there 
will be less assurance that these characteristics 
will be generally reproduced in the subsequent 



218 



AGRICULTURE. 



generations. Examples of this tendency to 
vary are seen in the grape and the potato. 

Another condition is (2) the ^Z7ne required for 
the growth of a plant from the seed to the ma- 
turity of its seed. Many species require but a 



.i.^.,^^ 


^ 


/■/V^^ 


i^ 


/' '"■ J/^ 


w'y'M 


/ ' •' ; 


1"' ' ■ i\' 




< i ' -ji' \ 


^ / \ 


^ ry\ 




1] ' i/ 1 




7 1 ' 



FIG. 55. — ROOTED TIPS OF A SEEDLING RASPBERRY CANE. 

They are of one season's growth, showing new plants formed and their root- 
systems. (From Normal Garden.) 



single season ; most trees require a number of 
years to produce one generation. Four years 
from seed to seed would be a short period for 
apple, pear, and cherry, and some varieties re- 
quire a much longer time. 

Hence, it would be impracticable, if not im- 
possible, in the lifetime of one man, to render 



PROPAGATION Of^ PLANTS. 



219 



the desired characteristics of these plants per- 
manent — -that is, by the selection and reproduc- 
tion of the seedling. So in these cases the fac- 
tor of sexual reproduction must be eliminated, 
and thus the tendency of the plant to vary less- 




FIG. 56. — LEAF CUTTING — WHOLE LEAF. 

ened, if one would perpetuate the variety. This 
is done by x}i\^ propagation of plants from bnds, 
or asexual reproduction. 

^.—PROPAGATION FROM BUDS. 

Here, again, nature gives us examples among 
the uncultivated plants. The wild strawberry 
multiplies asexually by throwing out runners 
which form roots and become new plants. The 
raspberry bends its flexible branches until their 
tips touch the moist earth ; soon they are cov- 
ered by leaf-mould or soil, and new plants are 
formed by sending out roots from these buried 
tips. 



220 



AGRICULTURE. 



Many other examples of asexual reproduction 
may be found — as, rootstocks, tubers, bulbs, etc. 

Bud propagation maybe carried on by four dif- 
ferent processes : cutting-, budding, grafting, and 
layering, according to (i) the number of buds 
used, (2) the condition of the material, and (3) 
the season of the year in which the work is done, 
as is shown by the following scheme : 





CUTTING. 


BUDDING. 


GRAFTING. 


LAYERING. 


Number 

of 

Buds. 


One 

to 

several. 


One. 


Two 

or 

more. 


One 

to 

several. 


Time 

of 
year. 


Throughout 

the year, 

except in hot 

weati'.er. 


Rarly 
and late 
summer. 


L,ast month 

of winter, or 

second month of 

spring. 


Spring 

and 
summer. 


Condition 

of 
material. 


Either dormant 

or 

growing. 


Growing. 


Scion, dormant. 




\ Dormant 
Stock - or 

( Growing. 


Growing. 



I. Cutting. 

This process consists in taking a leaf, a por- 
tion of a stem, or of a root, and placing it in such 
conditions that adventitious J roots are formed, 
and thus it becomes a new plant. 

I. Green Wood Cuttings are made from the 
green parts of a growing plant. To secure the 
best results, the cuttings should be taken from a 
well-matured branch of a vigorous, healthy plant. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 



221 





FIG. 57. — LEAF CUTTING- 
PART OF LEAF. 



FIG. 58. LEAF CUTTING OF 

Sansevieria zevlanica. 



(i) Leaf Cuttings (Fig. 56). — There are 
few plants which can be grown from leaves ; 
among these are the Sansevieria zeylanica and 
begonia. Fleshy leaves most readily respond 
to this manner of propagation. The leaves may 
be placed upon moist sand and pegged down at 
the main veins, or the base of the leaf buried in 
the sand. Roots are thrown out at the cut ends 
of the veins, and new plants are formed at 
these points (Figs. 56, 57, 58). 

(2) Si EM Cuttings. — Directions for propagating by 
means of stem cuttings : {a) Cut tlirifty slioots from 
different species of plants — as, geranium, coleus, agera- 
tum, heliotrope, verbena, tomato, nasturtium, etc. 



22^ 



AGRICULTURE. 



{/?) Divide each of tliese shoots into cuttings, having 
at least two nodes each. In doing this begin with the 
top of the shoot, taking off a portion having two or more 
nodes, cutting through the stem immediately below the 
lower node. Reduce the leaf surface one-half (to check 





FIG. 5g. — TIP CUTTING OF A 
CHRYSANTHEMUM. 



FIG. 60. — CUTTING OF 
HELIOTROPE. 



evaporation) by removing the entire leaves from the 
lower portion, and, if need be, clipping some of the re- 
maining leaves (Figs. 59, 60). One or more cuttings 
may be made from the remainder of the shoot. These 
are prepared like the tip cutting, with the exception that 
about one-half inch of stem should be allowed to project 
above :he upper node. 

(r) As soon as each cutting is finished, it should be 
thrown into cold water. 

(a) Fill the propagating-table * to the depth of four 

* In absence of propagating-table, use a shallow box four or 
five inches deep (Fig. 65). 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 






or five inches with clean, coarse sand. (Otlier con- 
ditions for starting cuttings should be the same as for 
seed germination.) If the cuttings are made in sum- 
mer, the propagating-table will not require artificial 
heat; otherwise bottom heat must be supplied. Ingreen- 





FI(5. 6l. — CUTTING OF OLEANDER 
ROOTING IN WATER 



a — Young shoots, ;- — Roots. 

FIG. 62. STEM CUTTING OF 

UMBRELLA PLANT ROOT- 
ING IN WATER. 



houses, or buildings where the heat is sufificiently well 
regulated, this may be supplied by steam-pipes. Where 
this is not practicable, an excellent substitute may be 
furnished by the use of fermenting stable compost. The 
fresh compost should be mixed with a small proportion 
of straw and leaves, moistened and packed in an ample 
box, to the depth of about eighteen inches. Now spread 
upon this mixture about five inches of sand. (The box 
should be protected from direct sunlight and drafts.) 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 325 

(e) Place a tliermometer in the sand, and record the 
temperature at various intervals for several days. It 
will be evident that as the compost becomes heated the 
temperature will be too high for the cuttings, and they 
should not be put in until the temperature has fallen to 
about 80''. 

(/) The cuttings should be well firmed in the sand to 
about one-half of their length, and placed about an inch 
apart in rows. After the cuttings are placed, brush the 
hand across their tops, to see if they are sufficiently well 
firmed. If so, none of them will be displaced. Label 
each species of cuttings with name and date. 

(o-) The sand must be kept uniformly moist, not wet. 
The cuttings may be carefully lifted out and examined 
from time to time, to see if any have rooted. The time 
required for each species to root should be recorded. 

{/i) As soon as the roots are about an inch long, the 
cuttings should be potted off into thumb-pots filled with 
soil prepared, as directed for treatment of fine seeds 
(page 2 1 2). These little pots should be sunk to one-third 
of their depth in flats of moist sand. As soon as the 
plant has grown until the pot is filled with roots, it should 
be transferred to a size larger pot. 

(/) To ascertain whether the pot is filled with roots 
invert the pot, resting it upon the palm of the left hand, 
allowing the plant to pass between the fingers, and 
steadying the pot by placing the right hand upon the 
bottom. Now gently tap the edge of the pot against a 
box or table (Fig. 63) until the ball of soil drops into the 
hand (Fig. 64). As the plant continues to grow, repot 
in this manner as often as is necessary. 

2. Hard Wood Cuttings. — (i) Stem Cut- 
tings are taken from dormant, mature wood of 
the last season's growth. These may be secured 
any time after the leaves have fallen. In local- 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 



227 



ities where the winter is severe, it is best to take 
the cutting" before cold weather. 

Directions for making hard wood cuttings : (a) For 
this purpose, select the most vigorous branches 
of such plants as the gooseberry, currant, and 
many varieties of the grape and flowering 
shrubs, and cut off tliat portion which con- 
sists of last year's growth (Fig. 66). 

(^) Divide each of these stems into cuttings 
of at least two nodes. (If the internode is 
short, as in the currant and gooseberry, sev- 
eral nodes may be included in the cutting.) 
The stem should be cut off immediately below 
tlie lower node and allowed to extend one- 
fourth of an inch above the upper one (Fig. 
69). 

(c) These should be tied in bunches of 
from twenty-five to fifty each, labeled, and 
packed in boxes of green sawdust or moist 
sand, and kept in a cool, damp place until 
spring. 

(ii) The cuttings may 
be started in a propagating- 
box (see page 226) or hot- 
bed as early as February 
or March, and transferred «• wood buds. 

f>. Flower or fruit bud. 

to the open ground as 
soon as the weather per- 
mits. Where this is not 
practicable, they may re- 
main packed in the sawdust 
until favorable weather, 
and placed at once in the 
open ground, which has been prepared by deep plowing 
and thorough pulverizing. 



('. stipule scar. 
d. Leaf scar. 
^.Growth of one 

season. 
./. Two-year-old wood. 



FIG. 66. — TWIG OK WHITE ELM 
{Ultmts Americana, X,.) 



328 



AGRICULTURE. 




(<?) Plant them in an oblique position, leaving the up- 
per node above the surface (Fig. 67), and two or three 
inches apart in rows four feet apart. The soil should 
be closely pressed about the base of the cuttings to pre- 
vent their drying out. They 
should be frequently culti- 
vated throughout the grow- 
ing season. 

{/) Some of them may 
have made sufficient growth 
(Fig. 68) the first season to 
justify their being transplant- 
ed to the grounds where they 
are to remain. 

(2) Root Cuttings. — All species of plants 
which " sprout from the roots " may be propa- 
gated by means of root cuttings In some 
cases these cuttings are really portions of un- 
derground stems — as, horseradish, rhubarb, etc. 
But cuttings from real roots have no buds, as 
those of the blackberry and quince (Fig. 70). 



'fig. 67. — I'OSniON (IK HARD 
WOOD CUTTING IN SOIL. 




FIG. 68. — ROOTED GRAPE CUTTING. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 



Directions for root-cutlings: [a] The roots 
should be cut into pieces two or tliree inches 
long. Most of them thrive best when started 
with bottom heat. 

(d) Plant horizontally, close together, and 
entirely cover with two or three inches of 



^^^1 



II. Budding.* 

To propagate a plant by budding is 
to take a mature bud from the plant 
which one desires to pci'-petiiatc, and to 




FIG. -yO. CUTTING OF KI.ACKKERKY ROOT. 



insert it in the bark of some allied 
plant in which it develops. This must 
be done when the bark will peel easily 
and mature buds can be procured, the 
time of which will depend entirely 
upon the season. In general, there 



* Suggestion to teacher : The work of Iniddiiig 
should be studied at the time of year when the 
required conditions are present in nature. 

If, however, the school is not in session at this 
time, willow switches in which the growth has been 
started by standing in water in a sunny window for 
several weeks may be used as stocks, just to teach 
the students hoiv to perform the operations of bud- 
ding. 



230 



AGRICULTURE. 



are two periods of the year in which budding 
may be done — spring and early fall. 

I. Spring budding. — Directions for the work : [a) The 
strongest twigs of last year's growth should be care- 
fully selected from the healthiest, best developed tree of 
the desired variety. These should be cut 
while dormant, packed in small boxes of 
green sawdust or moist sand, and kept 
in a cool, damp place until the stockj is 
in condition for inserting the buds 

[b) The stocks best suited for this 
work are well-developed one-year-old 
seedlings (Fig. 72). The stocks are pre- 
pared for the bud by making two incis- 
ions in the bark, one immediately above 
and at right angles to the other, forming 
a T-shaped cut (Fig. 73). These incis- 
ions should be made on the north side 
of the seedlings, away from the direct 
rays of tlie sun and close to the ground. 

[c) Select mature wood-buds from 
that portion of the budding-stick| which 
is neither too old nor too young. Now 

TO REMOVE A BUD. placc the knife one-fourth inch below 
the bud, cut through into the wood, and 
pass the knife upward beneath the bud to a point one- 
fourth inch above it. Remove the knife. Make a hori- 
zontal \nc\s\on Just through the bark at this upper point 
(Fig. 71). Now lift the edge of the bark, and carefully 
peel it back with the thumb and finger, leaving the 
ivood attached to the budding-stick. Look on the under 
side of the bud, to see if it is hollow. If so, discard it, for 
the vascular bundles have been removed in preparing the 
bud, and it is worthless, for there is nothing left which 
will unite with the cambium layer of the stock (Fig. 73), 




FIG. 71. — THE WAV 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 



231 



(«') Now turn back tlie edges of the bark in the T- 
shaped incision of the stock and insert the bud, as in 
Fig. 73, pushing it down until the top edge of the bark 




I'll,. 7J. -(iNK-VEAK-f)I.I) I'E.VCH SEEDLINGS. 
(P'roni Normal School Garden.) 

is fitted in below the edge of the horizontal incision of 
the stock. Wrap with moist rafifia;j; above and below 
the bud, so as to bring the parts into close contact. 

((?) As soon as the bud unites with the stock — about 
ten days — tlie raffia should be cut, so as not to inter- 
fere with the growth of the bud. At the same time, the 
seedling should be cut back by removing the upper por 



!3S 



AGRICULTURE. 



tion an inch or two above the bud, so as to direct tlie 
growth of the plant to the new bud. 

2. In late summer or earlv fall budding the process is 
the same as that of spring budding, except in this case 




FIG. 73. — STAGES IN BUDDING. 

A. T-shaped incision. B. Ready to receive the bud. C. The bud. 

D. Inserting the bud. E. Inserted and wrapped. 



the leaves are present, and should be removed as soon 
as the scion is cut, leaving a portion of the petiole 
intact. 

III. Grafting. 

Points ivliich imist not be ove^Hooked to secure 
a successful graft: (i) The cambium layer of 
the scion must coincide with that of the stock 
at least in one point, so that the sap may flow 
uninterruptedly ; this will be the more certainly 
effected if all the cuts and incisions be made 
smoothly with a sJiarp knife. 

(2) A moderate pressure must be provided, 
so that union may take place. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 



233 



(3) All exposed cut surfaces must be protected 
from atmospheric agencies. 

Grafting is divided with reference to the posi- 
tion of the scion 2ipon the stock 
into ( i) root-grafting, and (2) stem- 
grafting. 

(i) RooT-GRAFTiNG. — For this 
purpose the roots of seedlings — 
most commonly, apples — from one 
to two years old should be used as 
stocks. The work should be done 
at least six or eight weeks before 
the time of planting. 

{a) In whole-root grafting, the 
entire primary root is used, while 
in {b) piece-root grafting, pieces of 
the primary root, three or four 
inches long, are used. Thus, one 
primary root may furnish material 
for two or three grafts. fig. 74.— one- 

Graftinor is divided, with refer- year-old piece- 

, . . ROOT GRAFT. 

ence to the method of insertion of The urge mass of 

,1 • •x_^1 i.1'^/\ roots formed from 

the scion mto the stock, mto (i) ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ the 
tongue or whip orraftinor, and (2) •'^"°"- (^'■"'"Nor- 

t> r fc> *5' \ / mal Garden.) 

cleft-grafting. The tongue or whip 

graft is used for both piece and whole root 

grafting. 

Directions for root-grafting : {ci) Hold the stock or 
scion vvliicli is to be cut in the left liand, with the end 
supported by the index finger. 




234 



AGRICULTURE. 



(^) Now make a diagonal cut through the base of the 
scion or the top of the stock, as the case may be. While 
still holding it in this position, beginning one-third of 
the length from the outer end of this cut, make a verti- 
cal slit about an inch long. 

{c) When the stock and scion are each thus prepared, 

H 





FIG. 75. — STEPS IN ROOT-GRAFTING. 

carefully insert the tongue of the one into the slit of the 
other in such a manner as to bring the cambium layer 
of the stock into direct contact with that of the scion 
(Fig. 75), and wrap closely with No. 18 knitting cotton 
or moist rafifia. 

(d) Cut this wrapping into foot lengths, and, begin- 
ning at one end of the grafted parts, pass the thread 
several times around, allowing one end of the thread to 
be held beneath this wrapping. Now pass the thread on 
up to the other end of the graft, and wrap again, this 
time fastening the free end of the thread by slipping it 
firmly between the projecting and the united parts of 
the graft, as in Fig. 75. This grafted stock when com- 
pleted should be about eight or ten inches long. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 



(<?) The whole root-grafts are made in ex- 
actly the same way, the whole primary root, 
of course, being used as the stock. 

(/) These grafted stocks should now be 
tied in bundles and packed in green sawdust, 
or moist sand, until the weather is suitable 
for them to be planted in the open ground. 
The ground should be prepared for them by 
very deep plowing and thorough pulverizing. 

(g) These root-grafts should be planted 
about six inches apart in rows four feet apart. 
Pains should be taken to />ress the soil closely 
about the. roots, allowing but one bud to re- 
main above the surface. 

As a rule, they should be allowed to grow 
two years before being transplanted to the 
orchard, during which time clean cultivation 
should be given throughout the growing 
seasons. 

(2) Stem-grafting. — In stem-graft- 
ing, old or otherwise undesirable trees 
are used as stocks. 

(a) Top-grafting. — The metJiod of 
grafting used most often in this work 
is the cleft-graft, on account of the 
large size of the stocks to be grafted. 
For good results, however, the branches 
used as stocks should not be much over 
one and one-half inches in diameter. 

It would be too great a shock to fig. 76.— dor- 
the tree to remove all of the old top '^^'^'^^ apple 

r TWIG. 

in one season; consequently, a por- 1,2, 3, 4 are scions 

'■ ^ ^ which may be cut 

tion of it should be grafted each ^a^^respecdveiy.' 



^' 



236 



AGRICULTURE. 



successive season, for three or four seasons, until 
the entire old top has been replaced. 

Directions for top-grafting: (a) Time. This work 
should be done in the spring, just before, or about the 
time, the buds open, or even later, /r6'7^/V/^</ the scions can 
be kept dormant, as in root-grafting. 

(/') The stock is prepared by making a smooth, hori- 





KIG. 77. STEPS IN STEM-CRAFTING. 

zontal cut through the stem. A vertical slit about an 
inch and one-half in length is now made down through 
the center (Fig. 77). 

{c) The scion is prepared by making two diagonal 
cuts across the lower end, one on the opposite side of 
the stem from the other, so as to form a wedge-shaped 
point (Fig. 77). 

{d) Since it doubles the chances of growth, two scions 
should be inserted in each cleft, inclining them at a slight 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 237 

angle, so as to insure, at least at the point of intersec- 
tion, the close contact of the cambium layers (Fig. 77). 

(d') All exposed cut surfaces should be carefully icaxcd, t > 
keep out air and moisture. 

Grafting-wax is made by breaking into small pieces 
two to two and one-half parts (by weight) beeswax and 
four to five parts resin, and melting them together with 
one part of tallow or linseed oil. The greater the pro- 
portion of resin and beeswax, the harder the grafting- 
wax will be. When this mixture is melted, pour it into 
cold water. As soon as it is cooled enough to handle, 
remove the wax from the water and pull like taffy until 
it becomes light colored. It may be applied with the 
fingers, if the hands have been carefully greased, or ap- 
plied with a little stick while the wax is hot, if care be 
taken not to injure the parts waxed. 

(<^) Crown-grafting. — This method is gener- 
ally used for shrubs, grape-vines, etc. 

Directions : In crown-grafting tlie stock is prepared 
by cutting off the plant at the surface of the ground. 

The process is th.e same as that of top-grafting, the 
only difference being t\\G position of the graft. 

IV. Layering. 

This method of asexual reproduction differs 
from that of cuttingr buddinor, and eraftinp-, in 
that the new plant is rooted while still attached 
to the parent plant. This is not only the sim- 
plest, but also the most certain, method of bud 
propagation wherever practicable. In nature 
familiar examples of layering are the black rasp- 
berry (Fig. 55), strawberry, and dewberry. In 
fact, very many plants will send out roots if 
brougrht in contact with moist soil. 



238 AGRICULTURE. 

I. Simple Layering. — Directions for layering : {a) 
This is ordinarily done by merely bending down any 
one of the lower side shoots, placing it in a slight depres- 
sion, pegging it down with a forked stick, and covering 
it with a few inches of mellow soil. In a dry season 
it will be necessary to moisten this soil, and mulch it 
with dry earth or grass. 

{p) Under favorable conditions roots will form at the 
buried node, and a new plant may be secured by separat- 
ing the rooted shoot from the old plant. If more than 
one plant is desired, bury as many nodes as the old 
plant will sustain. 

2. Mound Layering. — A very simple process 
called mound layering is practiced where a num- 
ber of new plants are desired from a single 
parent. 

Directions for mound layering: {a) The parent plant 
is cut off at or near the surface of the ground before 
growth begins in the spring, and is called the " stool." 
By the following spring many shoots will have been 
produced. 

{h) The stool and the base of the shoots are mounded 
up with soil to the depth of several inches. Roots will 
be formed at the underground nodes of these the same 
summer (Fig. 78). 

(r) In autumn, or the following spring, the newly 
rooted shoots maybe removed from the stool and trans- 
planted as individual plants. 

(^/) The same stool may be repeatedly used, if well 
cared for by thorough cultivation and liberal applica- 
tions of stable compost. 

Any low, stubby plants — as, the gooseberry, or even the 
quince — may be advantageously propagated by mound 
layering. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 



239 



Wherever the process of layering cannot be 
performed by bending the branch to meet the 
soil, the soil, or a substitute, may be lifted up 
to the branch. There are various devices used 
in doinof this. 

3. Pot Layering. — (i) The limb which has been par- 




FIG. 78. — MOUND LAYERING. 

tially girdled in order to check the backward flow of 
sap is surrounded by some moist material — as, sphagnum 
moss, vegetable fiber, or soil. This should be held in 
place by merely wrapping the moss or fiber closely 
about the wounded portion of the stem. This wrapping 
should form a ball about five or six inches in diameter, 
so that it will not dry out too quickly. This may be 
further protected by an additional covering of a heavy 
paper cone. 

(2) Instead of the moss or fiber, layering pots contain- 
ing soil may be used. 

(a) A simple form of layering pot may be con- 
trived from a tomato-can by cutting a hole in the 
bottom of the can slightly larger than the stem to 
be inclosed ; then make a slit down one side of the 



240 AGRICULTURE. 

can and lialf-way across the bottom to the hole in the 
center. 

{/>) Carefully spring the can far enough apart to admit 
the limb (which should be well wrapped with cloth just 
where it is encircled by the bottom of the can, to keep it 
from being cut), and adjust it so that the girdled portion 
will be in about the center of the can. 

{c) Wrap the can securely in both directions with 
wire, and support it by attaching the wire to an upper 
limb 

{(f) Now fill the can with moist soil, and see that it is 
kept moist. 

(e) When the soil is filled with roots cut off the stem 
below the can, prune back the top, and transplant where 
desired. 

An ingenious teacher may contrive many simple de- 
vices for layering by using such material as is at hand, 
as, chalk-boxes, etc. 

(3) Where several layers are to be obtained at one 
time from a tall shrub or small tree, a long, box of soil 
may be supported by a post beneath the twigs to be 
layered. These must be pegged down in the soil until 
rooted. For any particularly desirable bud variation 
(" sport") this plan is especially advantageous. 

C— REFERENCES. 

" Top Working Orchard Trees." Year-book, 1902. 

"The Superior Value of Large Heavy Seed." Year-book, 
1896. 

"Testing Seeds at Home." Year-book, 1895. 

" Seed Selling, Seed Growing, and Seed Testing." Year-book, 
1899. 

"The Propagation of Plants." Farmers' Bulletin 157, United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

" The Apple and How to Grow It." Farmers' Bulletin, 113. 

" Plant Propagation." Circular No. 13, Missouri Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 



PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 241 

" Orchard Technique." Bulletins 98, 99, 100, and loi, Virginia 
Agricultural Experiment Station. 

"The Apple Orchard." Bulletin 49, Missouri Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

" Orchard Management." Bulletin 59 Illinois Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

" The Principles of Plant Production." Circular No. 15, Mis- 
souri Agricultural Experiment Station. 

" Principles of Plant Culture." Goff, 1899. Published by the 
Author, Madison, Wis. 

" Principles of Agriculture." Bailey. 1900. 10. 

"Garden-making." Bailey. 1898. 10. 

"The American Fruit Culturist." Thomas. 1897. William 
Wood & Co., N. Y. 

"Propagation of Plants." Fuller. 1887. Orange Judd Co., 
N. Y. 

" New Creations in Plant Life." Harwood. 10. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER X. 

IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 

Basis of : 

1. Variation. 

2. Heredity. 

3. Selection. 

y^.— IMPROVEMENT OF EXISTING TYPES, 

I. Selection of Seeds. 

1. Table of Standards. 

2. A Study in the Selection of Seeds. 

II. Isolation of Seedlings. 

III. Given Normal Conditions. 

IV. Selection Should Be Repeated. 
V. Example of Type Improvement. 

^.—ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES. 
I. Determining the Ideal. 

1. Definite Characteristics. 

2. Characteristics Chosen Along the Natural Develop 

nient. 

3. Characteristics Must Harmonize witli Eacli Other. 

(i) Earliness. 

(2) Size. 

(3) Number. 

i. One Leading Characteristic. 

243 



244 AGRICULTURE. 

II. Variation Furnishes the Starting-point 

1. Variation of Scealiiigs. 

2. Variation may be induced by — 

(i) Environmental Changes. 

{a) Change in Food-supply. 

{h) Light Relations. 

{c) Pruning. 
(2) Cross-fertilization. 

{a) Limits of Crossing. 

{b) Varying Results of Crossing 

{c) Process of Cross-pollination 
3 Bud Variation. 

III. Fixing the Type. 

C— REFERENCES. 



CHAPTER X. 

IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 

'* Those who improve plants are true benefactors." 

GOFF. 

Variation, heredity, and selection form the 
basis of all plant improvement. 

1. Variation. — It is evident that the first re- 
quisite toward the improvement of plants must 
be the power to vary ; for were it not possible 
for plants to vary, no change could take place. 
It is these individual differences that make one 
plant more desirable than another, and thaty>/r- 
nish the starting-point for the improve7nent of 
the existing type, or for the origination of a new 
variety. 

2. Heredity. — While variation furnishes the 
starting-point, the desired characteristics would 
be of no avail in plant improvement were it not 
possible for them to be transmitted by heredity. 

3. Selection. — By continued selection through 
a number of generations, the characteristics fur- 
nished by variation are preserved and accumu- 
lated through heredity. 

yi.— IMPROVEMENT OF EXISTING TYPES. 

When the object desired is simply to improve 
a given variety, individual plants can be found 

245 



246 



AGRICULTURE. 



in any field or garden crop which are especially 
good representatives of the existing type. 

I. Selection of Seeds. 

The very first thing to be done is to select 
the most perfectly developed seeds from those 
particular plants which most nearly conform to 
the standard of perfection for that type, 






Agricultural Kipuriuieiit Station, Ames, luwa. 

FIC. 79. — VAKIATION IN GRAINS OF CORN. 

No. I is liLst since the grains are full and plninp at the tips next the cob, and 
have large germs indicating strong vitality and feeding value. Nos. 2, 11, and 
12 are the next best forms in order. Nos. 5, 6. and 7 are weak, with low feeding 
vahie and small percentage of corn to cob. Since the grains are fio/ uniform 
in size, the planter will not drop the same inimber in each hill. These grains 
were taken from ears that appeared to be good when examined from the 
standpoint of the ear, and shows the importance of paying more attention to 
the selection of grain from the seed ears of corn. 

Exercise io. — A Study in Corn Judging. — {a) Procure 
a half-bushel of mixed or unimproved corn and ten or 
twelve ears of an improved variety of corn. 

{b) Judge and score the improved or standard variety 
of corn according to the points and directions on the 
score card. 

(<:) Judge and score the mixed corn. 

(</) Select ten of the best ears of the mixed or unim- 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 



247 



SCORE CARD. 

CORN. 



SCALE OF POINTS 



1. Uniformity of Exhibit. Uniform in size, 
color and indentation 

2. Maturity and Market Condition. Ma- 
ture and solid, free from decay or injury 

3. Purity, a. Kernels — freedom from mixture 
b. Cobs — of one color 

4. Shape of Ear. Cylindrical 

5. Proportion of Length to Circumference. 
As 4 is to 3 

6. Shape and Uniformity of Kernels. Wedge 
shape and not pointed, length i Yz times 
width, uniform in size 

7. Character of Germs. Full, bright, 
smooth, not shriveled, or discolored 

8. Butts. Well-rounded, regular kernels, 
cup-shaped cavity 

9. Tips. Filled out with regular sized ker- 
nels, straight rows to end 

10. Space Between Rows. Narrow 

11. Per Cent, of Corn to Ear. (84 per cent.) 
per cent 

Total 





n 
1 


IT' 
n 


n 


-i 

n 
a. 






15 

10 
5 
5 

10 

in 

10 

10 

5 

5 
5 

10 







































































































100 











VARIETY MEASUREMENTS. 

Length Circumference 

Raid's Yellow Dent 10-10 J/2 7 J4-7J4 

Learning io-io>^ 7!4-7/^ 

St. Charles Yellow lo-i i 7/4-8 

Boone County White lo-i i 7/4-8 

Farmers' Interest lo-i i 7/4-7M 

St. Charles White 9-10 7-7^^ 

Silvermine 9-9/4 7-7/4 

Cartner ^Vz-gVi 7-7 -^^ 



Student's Name. 



Date. 



248 AGRICULTURE. 



HOW TO APPLY THE POINTS OF THE SCORE CARD. 

Uniformity of Exhibit. (IS) — The ears of an exhibit should be uniform 
in size, color and indentation. The 15 points allow 5 to be given for size, 
5 to color, and 5 to indentation. Each ear may be cut as much as one- 
half point under each of these heads. For each ear that is larger or 
smaller than the prevailing type cut one-fourth to one-half point. For each 
ear of different shade or color from the prevailing type cut one-fourth to 
one-half point. For each ear that differs in indentation from prevailing 
type cut one-fourth to one-half point. The sum of these cuts gives the 
total cut of uniformity of exhibit. 

Maturity and Marlcet Condition. (10) — Each ear should be solid and 
free from injury or decayed soots. Each ear showing a marked degree of 
looseness should be cut not to exceed one point. For ears less imperfect 
in this respect a cut of one-fourth to three-fourths may be made. Ears 
showing rotten spots or injuries should be cut one-fourth to one-half point 
each. 

Purity — Kernels. (5) — Kernels should be free from mixture with corn 
of opposite color. Mixture in yellow corn is shown on caps of kernels in 
white corn on the sides. For each mixed kernel in an ear cut one-fourth 
point. 

Purity — Cobs. (5) — Cobs should be of one color; in yellow corn, 
red; and in white corn, white. (Except St. Charles White.) For each cob 
of opposite color cut 2 points. For pink cobs cut one-fourth to one-half 
point, according to shade. Two cobs of opposite color shall bar exhibit. 

Shape of Ear. (10) — Ears should be as nearly cylindrical as possible. 
A cylindrical ear usually means a greater jjer cent of corn to cob and a 
larger number of kernels of uniform size and shape for planting. Cut 
one-fourth to one point for each ear that tapers too greatly. 

Proportion of Length to Circumference. (10) — The ratio of length to 
circumference should be as 4 to 3, or the circumference measured at a 
point one-third the distance from butt to tip should be three-fourths the 
length of the ear. Cut one point for each ear markedly out of proportion. 

Shape and Uniformity of Kernels. (10) — The ideal kernel is slightly 
wedge-shaped but not pointed, the length of which is approximately one 
and one-half times as great as the width at the widest part. For each ear 
showing kernels of poor shape, or kernels which are larger or smaller than 
the prevailing type, cut one-fourth to one point. Should an ear have ker- 
nels deficient in both uniformity and shape cut two points. 

Character of Germ. (10) — Germ should be full, smooth, bright, not 
blistered, shriveled, or discolored. When broken it should show a fresh, brit- 
tle, oily appearance. Cut not more than one point for each ear showing 
inferior germs. 

Butts. (5) — An ideal butt on an ear of corn should be well-rounded 
out, with deep, regular kernels, solidly and evenly compacted around a 
clean cup-shaped cavity. Cut not to exceed one-half point for each de- 
fective butt. 

Tips. (5) — The tip should be filled out to the end with deep kernels in 
regular rows. The ideal tip is completely covered, but if kernels are deep 
and regular to end of cob no cut need be made. Cut not to exceed one-half 
point for each tip. 

Space Between Rows. (5) — Furrows between rows should be narrow 
but not entirely closed. Cut not to exceed one-half point for each ear 
seriously deficient in this respect. 

Per Cent of Corn to Ear. (10) — The per cent of corn to ear should 
not be under 84. A high per cent of shelled corn is desirable, but too small 
cobs do not favor a large yield of corn per acre. Cut not to exceed one 
point for each ear markedly deficient in this respect, or where the sample 
is shelled and weighed, cut one and one-half points for each per cent 
which the sample averages below 84. 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 240 

proved corn and compare them with the improved vari- 
ety of corn. 

How do they compare as to per cent, of corn? How 
many of the best ears of your improved corn would it 
take to make a busliel (56 pounds) of shelled corn? 
How many of the best ears of tlie mixed corn would it 
take? Do you know wliich yields the more per stalk? 
Which requires the more ground to grow a bushel of 
shelled corn ? Which requires the more seed to plant 
the ground ? Which requires the more labor to produce 
the bushel ? Which, then, is the more economical and 
profitable kind to grow? 

II. Isolation of Seedlings. 

The selected seeds should be planted In a place 
where they will be isolated from other plants of 
the same or of a different variety with which 
they would readily mix, else they would be 
contaminated by their neighbors ; for if they 
were not isolated from other individuals of the 
same variety, they would probably mix with in- 
ferior ones, and the improvement would, there- 
fore, be less. For this reason, also, it would be 
well to weed out from the seedlings of the 
selected seeds all inferior plants before the 
pollen ripens. 

If these selected seeds were planted near a 
different variety, the two varieties might mix, 
and the resulting offspring, in all probability, 
would not conform to the type. 

* It may seem to some that undue importance is placed upon 
the details of this study. But comparatively few persons realize 
the bearing of careful, intelligent selection upon the improve- 
ment of the agricultural products of America. 



250 AGRICULTURE. 

III. Given Normal Conditions. 

The seedling's should be kept tifider normal 
conditions, for any variation in the conditions 
would have a tendency to induce variation in 
the plant (see " Variation," p. 214). 

IV. Selection Should Be Repeated 

from generation to generation, so that these 
type characteristics may be transmitted, accu- 
mulated, and fixed ; thus will result the improve- 
ment of the type. 

V. Example of Type Improvement. 

As an example of the improvement of the 
existing type may be given the Boone County 
white corn improved by Mr. James Riley, of 
Indiana. He took for his type a fine white sort, 
selecting seed from the best-formed plants bear- 
ing one or two well-formed ears. He con- 
tinued this selection for a nuniber of years. In 
addition to this he went through the fields just 
as the tassels were appearing and cut out all 
imperfect and barren stalks. In this way the 
type was improved, as is shown in Fig. 80. * 

i?.— ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES. 

I. Determining the Ideal. 

I. The first step in originating a new variety 
is to determine definitely the characteristics 
which one ivishes to develop in the new plant. 

* Let each student prepare a definite, original, feasible, plan 
for the improvement of some promising existing type which 
needs improving. 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 



351 




Fir,. So. — IMl'KOVEMENr UF CORN liY SELECTION. 

Boone County white on left, and the original type from which it was developed 
by selection on right. 

2. These desired characteristics must be 
chosen along tJie line of tJie natural development 
of the plant. In this way not only is the time 
lessened in reaching the desired variety, but the 
attainment of that variety is much more nearly 
certain. 

3. These charactci'isties ninst be in Jiaj'nwny 
with eaeh other. 

(i) For example, if earliness is especially 
desired, size must not be expected, as in the 
earliest varieties — for example, sweet corn — the 
size not only of the ears but of the whole plant 
is much reduced. 



352 AGRICULTURE. 

(2) If size is desired, time and number must 
often be sacrificed. As Emerson says, "For 
everything you have missed, you have gained 
something else ; and for everything you gain, 
you lose something." The Ponderosa tomato 
is a good example of increased size at the ex- 
pense of number. A single plant bears about a 
dozen immense tomatoes. 

(3) If number is to be increased, then size 
must necessarily be diminished. Of this the 
little preserving tomato affords a good example. 
A single plant sometimes yields several hundred 
tomatoes. 

4. There should prevail one leading charac- 
teristic. Continued selection should be made 
with this predominating character in mind. If 
high flavor is the one character most desired, 
then all other characters must be made subor- 
dinate. In case other desirable qualities are 
found combined with high flavor in the same 
plant, as is often the case, it would then be ad- 
vantageous to breed from that plant. For ex- 
ample, in breeding for high flavor in the straw- 
berry, those plants should be chosen which 
possess the highest flavor, other characters 
being given secondary consideration ; but if 
individual plants can be found which combine 
both qualities, prolificacy and flavor, it would, of 
course, be advisable to propagate from those 
particular plants. 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 253 

II. Variation Furnishes the Starting-point. 

1. Variation of Seedlings. — When the charac- 
teristics of the desired variety have been defi- 
nitely determined, then if one will diligently and 
carefully search among his plants, he may find 
— owing to variation — individuals which possess 
these characters in a more marked degree than 
do the others. But if such individuals are not 
found, then 

2. Variation maybe induced hy (i) Environ- 
mental Changes. 

Important among these is («) a change in 
food-supply. Darwin says: "Of all the causes 
which induce variability, excess of food, whether 
or not changed in nature, is probably the most 
powerful." 

If heavy foliage and rank-growing plants rep- 
resent the " ideal," they should be given a liberal 
supply of nitrogeneous food (see " Effect of 
Nitrogen," Chapter IV.) If dwarf size and 
fruitfulness are the desired characters, then 
foods containing potash and phosphorus should 
be substituted. 

Experiment 26. — {a) To show variation induced bv 
change of food supply. Secure one-half bushel of pure 
white sand, and sterilize^ it by thoroughly baking it in 
a hot oven. 

{b) The tomato, geranium, etc., are suitable plants for 
this experiment. Select three small, similarly developed 
plants grown from cuttings of the same stock (see page 
220). 



^54 AGRICULTURE. 

(c) Pot these plants in similar-sized small pots, re- 
potting as tlie sand in each pot becomes filled with roots 
Place them under similar conditions as regards light, 
air, temperature, and water. Label the pots i, 2, and 3. 

{(/) Prepare stock solution No. i, containing the es- 
sential elements of plant-food in approximately the 
proper proportions, by thoroughly pulverizing and dis- 
solving in 1,000 parts of water (say \,oooc. c.) 15 parts 
monocalcium phosphate, 20 parts potassium sulphate, 
2 parts magnesium sulphate, 30 parts sodium nitrate, 
and 2 parts sodium chloride — adding a few drops of some 
soluble iron compound. 

Prepare stock solution No. 2 in every way like No. i, 
except that you leave out the sodium nitrate. 

Prepare stock solution No. 3 similar to No. i, except 
that you leave out the potassium sulphate. (The mineral 
matter will not entirely dissolve, so these solutions 
should be well shaken before using.) 

{e) When watering plant No. i, occasionally add a 
definite amount of solution No. i. (The condition of the 
plant must be the guide as to the time and amount of 
this food-supply.) Begin with a small amount, and 
gradually increase or diminish it. 

\t the same time add to the water used in watering 
plant No. 2 the same amount from stock solution No. 2, 
and to that used in watering plant No. 3 add the same 
amouni of stock solution No. 3. 

(/) Measurements and observations should be taken 
at stated times during several months upon the follow- 
ing points: Number, size, and color of leaves of each of 
these plants; hight and mean circumference of their 
stems; number and size of branches; time of flowering; 
number and character of blossoms; and in the tomato, 
the number, size, and quality of fruits. 

Experiment 27. — If for any reason the above experi- 
aient is not practicable, substitute (a) ordinary soil (no' 




i: p. 



« w=3 



256 AGRICULTURE. 

rich soil) for the sand; select the plants, and label the 
pots as in above experiment. 

[b) When watering the plant in pot No. 2, add a small 
but definite amount of water leeched from wood ashes; 
when watering the one in pot No. 3, add the same 
amount of water leached from stable compost; when 
watering pot No. i, add the same amount of each. As 
above, the condition of the plants must determine the 
time and amount of the food-supply. 

{c) Make the same observations and comparisons as 
in Experiment 26 (/). 

(Ji) Light is another factor in inducing vari- 
ation among plants. Light, in some degree, is 
essential to the growth of all green plants. 
Hence, all such plants strive to adapt themselves 
with reference to their light relations — (a) in 
the arrangement of their leaves by the rosette 
habit (Fig. 81), as in the plantain and dande- 
lion; (^) in the manner of branching and leaf- 
arrangement of trees; (r) in the elongation of 
and direction of the stems, as in the trees and 
vines of a dense forest; or (rt^) by turning to- 
ward the light, as in the sunflower. 

Experiment 28. — The student should be required to 
make actual observations and measurements of the 
variations of plants for adaptation to light from those 
plants of the same kind grown in the light and in the 
dark.or partial darkness. 

Experiment 29. ■ — Let him try to produce a volublej 
stem by starting some erect plant — as, the potato or 
tomato — in a darkened place, so arranged that light is 
admitted only from one small opening (about three 
inches square) at one side and above the plant. When it 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 



25^ 



has made a growth of several inches, 
place a round, straight stick in the pot 
for its support, and bind it to it with a 
soft string, leaving about two inches of 
the top of the plant free. When this free 
portion has bent directly toward the 
light, gradually turn the pot so that as 
the tip again turns toward the light the 
stem will at the same time make a par- 
tial revolution around the support. 
(Fig 82). 

Continue turning the pot in this 
manner throughout the growth of the 
plant. As the plant develops, it would 
be well to give it more light, but this 
should always be obtained from a 
northern exposure. 

(f) Variation Induced by 
Pruning (Fig. 83). — Not only is 
the food-supply distributed to a 
less number of branches, thereby 
increasing the amount to each 
branch, but the form of tJic en- 
tire plant can be greatly modified 
by prtining. 

Buds or branches may be ac- 
cidentally destroyed or intention- voiuwe stem pro- 

■^ ■^ >. duced by Experi- 

ally removed. As an example of ment 29. 

variation induced by accident 
may be given the origination of the Burpee 
Bush Lima bean. 

In 1883 " Mr. Palmer's entire crop of large 
White Pole Limas was destroyed by cutworms." 



KIG. 82. — POTATO 
TLANT. 



258 



AGRICULTURE. 



He found one little plant which had been cut 
off about an inch above the ground, and had put 
out a new growth, "It bore three pods, each 



containing one seed.'"'' These were 
planted the next spring, resulting in 
two dwarf plants. From these, by 
continued selection, the Burpee 
Bush Lima was de- 
veloped. 

Sutryfestion : If 
the school does not 
own a garden plot, 
the teacher should 
secure a vacant lot 
by paying a small 
rental, or, perhaps, 
by sharing the 
products. If this 
is not possible, then 
the work of pruning 
and cross-pollina- 
tion must be done by those members of the 
class who can have access to private gardens, 
and their results reported to the class. 

If it is desired to secure a stout, bushy plant, 
instead of a tall, single-stemmed one, let the 
student take the chrysanthemum or cosmos for 
example. 




FIG. S3. MODIFICATIDNS UF COSMOS 

BY PRUNING. 



* Bailc-y's Plaul-Hi fiuiiug , page 139. 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS, 259 

Experiment 30. — (a) As soon as the terminal bud has 
become quite distinct, it should be removed. 

(/^) The development of lateral branches should be 
carefully watched and their terminal buds removed. 

(r) This should be continued at will, according to the 
form of the plant desired (Fig. 83). 

Experiment 31. — If size of blossom or of fruit is de- 
sired, all but a few of the flower buds should be removed, 
allowing tliose which are most advantageously situated 
in regard to light and food supply to remain. 

The chrysanthemum or cosmos will afford good mate- 
rial for this experiment with reference to size of 
blossom, while the tomato will furnish excellent material 
with regard to size of fruit. 

The modifications of the plant and the bene- 
fits to be derived from the various methods of 
pruning will be further discussed under the gen- 
eral subject of pruning. 

(2) Variation may be induced by Cross-fer- 
tilization. It may be possible that no plant 
can yet be found which combines the essential 
characteristics of the " ideal." In that case it 
would be advisable to select two plants, each of 
which possesses one or more of these characters, 
and to try to combine these in one plant by 
means of cross-fertilization. 

The Trophy tomato well illustrates the com- 
bination in one plant of the desired characters 
of two separate plants. In 1850, Dr. Hand, of 
Baltimore County, Maryland, desired to ur.ite 
the large size and firm fiesh of the compound, 
much convoluted tomato with the smooth skin 



260 AGRICULTURE. 

of the small, juicy Love Apple. By cross- 
fertilization " he succeeded in putting the solid 
mass of this compound growth into the smooth 
skin of the Love Apple, and then, by careful 
selection and cultivation year after year, in- 
creased its size and solidity until it became a 
mass of flesh interspersed with small seed cells." 

Another good example is that of the varie- 
gated hybrid carnation produced by crossing 
the pink variety (Scott) with the white Mc- 
Gowan (see colored plate). 

(rt) Limits of Crossing. — The two plants to 
be crossed must be members of the same family 
2nd of species, or varieties which are in some 
way closely allied. But even among these it is 
impossible to determine, without actual experi- 
ment, just what plants will cross with each other. 

This uncertainty of crossing among plants is 
exemplified in the case of the pumpkin {Ciicur- 
bita pepd) and squash {Cnciirbita maxima), 
which are species of the same genus, yet will 
not cross.* While with the strawberry and rasp- 
berry, which belong to different genera, a cross 
has been obtained. 

{J)) Varying Results of Crossing. — Even when 
a fertile cross is obtained, it may not show the 
desired characters in the first generation. f It 

'*' Year-book, 1897, p. 389. 

f " The first generation is constituted by plants grown from the 
seeds produced by the cross-pollinated flowers." — Year-book, 1897, 
p. 392. 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 261 

should be borne in mind that " the possibilities 
are by no means exhausted, but it is quite pos- 
sible that the descendants of these hybrids will 
yield valuable sorts." 

In many cases the cross, or its descendants, 
may possess the desired characters of one 
parent, while those desired from the other parent 
may be entirely lacking. In that case "it would 
be advisable to cross the offspring with that 
parent * whose characteristics did not appear; 
for, by so doing the tendency to transmit those 
particular characters will be increased, for this 
tendency is itself variable.""}* 

At the same time, the individual plants of the 
original cross should not be discarded for sev- 
eral generations, for there is in the offspring a 
slight atavisticj tendency, or a tendency to re- 
vert to the character of some remote ancestor; 
hence, at any time an individual plant may 
appear which presents the very characters 
desired. 

In no instance can the plant-improver afford 
to neglect any condition or advantage which 
will tend to induce the desired variation. 

(c) Process of Cross-pollination. — This con- 
sists in the transference of pollen from a flower 
of one plant selected to be crossed to the stigma 
of a flower from the other plant selected. In 

* Year-hook, i8gg, p. 4S4. 
Wear-book, 1S98, pp. 355-357- 



263 



AGRICULTURE. 



order to do this, it is simply necessary to under- 
stand the nature and arrangement of the parts 
of a tlower (Fig. 84). 



-st 




FIG. 84. THE PARTS OF A FLOWER. 

Paris of (I Flo-Mci-. — A typical flower consists of four kinds 
of organs (calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil), the parts of which 
vary in form and number in the flowers of different species. 

Starting from the outside, the first whorl is the calyx {ex), the 
separate parts of which are the sepals, usually green. The 
whorl just within the calyx is the corolla (<), composed of petals, 
which are often bright colored. 

Within the corolla are the stamens (j), consisting of filament, or 
stalk, and anther, or pollen-sac. In the center of the flower is 
the pistil (/), a stalk-like organ, the upper portion of which is 
somewhat rough and swollen, and is known as the stigma {st). 
The stamens and pistil are the only organs concerned in repro- 
duction, the others being merely accessory. 

The organs concerned in fertilization are the 
stamens (male organs) and the pistils (female 
organs). In many plants both stamens and pis- 
tils are borne on the same flower — as, the bean 
and pea ; in others they are borne on the same 



IMPROVEMENT t)F PLANTS. 



2G3 



plant but in separate flowers — as, the corn and 
cucumber ; while in still others they are pro- 
duced on separate plants — as, the ash and box 
elder. 

In case both stamens and pistils are borne on 
the same flower, the anthers must be removed 




FIG. 85. (IKAXr.l". BITD AND HLOSSOMS. 

a — Orange bud. b — Mature orange blos.som. c — An emasculated flower. 

before the pollen is shed, to prevent self-fertili- 
zation. To be sure of this, they should be re- 
moved before the bud is fully opened (Fig. 85, 
a), and in certain cases — as, wheat, etc. — in 
even an earlier stage, since pollination takes 
place before the bud opens. 

Directions for cross-pollination: {a) The bud should be 
carefully opened to expose the anthers (Fig. 85, ^), which 
should be picked off (Fig. 85, c) with a pair of tweezers, or 
cut off with a pair of tiny scissors. The best results will 
be obtained by selecting two or three of the strongest 
flowers of the cluster for emasculation, and removing 
all others. 

{b) The flower cluster thus treated should be at once 
enclosed in a paper bag, the open end of which should 
have been slightly moistened by quickly dipping it in 



264 



AGRICULTURE. 



water. Now the bag sliould be carefully tied around 
the twig, below the flower cluster, so as to insure the 
exclusion of insects and undesirable pollen (Fig 86^'). 

(r) The bag should be removed from time to time 
and the stigma examined with a hand-lens, to see if it is 
ready to receive the pollen. This can usually be told 





Pi^nl^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l 


■ 




.ff'^Q^H 


■ 




kJ 




HM^ 



FIG. 86a. 

ORANGE FLOWER 

Enclosed in paper bag after 

emasculation. 



FIG. 86(5. — NEARLY MATURE 

HYBRID ORANGE 

Enclosed in gauze bag to prevent 

loss by dropping. 



by the presence of a mucilaginous excretion, or by 
the appearance of papillae upon the surface of the 
stigma. 

{d\ It should not be forgotten that the flowers from 
the other plant selected to be crossed must likewise be 
protected from insects and foreign pollen. This is done 
by enclosing the entire flower cluster in a paper bag be- 
fore the bud opens. 

(e) When the anthers begin to open, the pollen should 
be collected, labeled, and kept until the stigma is ready 
to be fertilized. Then the pollen is gently applied to the 
stigma by means of a fine-pointed scalpel or even a pen- 
knife. 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 265 

{/) When the stigma is pollinated, it should be re- 
sacked and labeled. 

(g) After the fruit is set, it might be well to replace 
the paper sack with a gauze one (Fig. 86/^), which 
should be allowed to remain until the fruit is ripe, thus 
freely admitting air and light, yet affording protection 
from insects and birds, and preventing its loss by falling 
or being picked through mistake. 

3. B?(d Variation. — It may be that a single 
branch may show new and striking characters 
(Fig. 87), and possibly very desirable ones ; for 
example, the smooth skin of the nectarine is the 
product of a bud variation of the peach, and the 
mossy stem of the moss-rose is also a bud varia- 
tion or so-called sport.* 

It becomes necessary to perpetuate such varia- 
tions by bud propagation, since the characters of 
the plant as a whole are more likely to be re- 
produced through the seed, even of that partic- 
ular branch, than are the characters of a single 
branch. f 

III. Fixing the Type. 

It must be remembered that thus far only a 
star tijig- point for a variety has been obtained. 
It yet remains "to fix" that variety — that is, to 
make it "come true" from seed. This requires 
far more skill and patience than the work of 
securing the desired variation in the first place. 

"Selection is the force which augments, de- 



* Bailey's Plant Bretding, p. 161. \ Year-book, X898, 357. 



266 



AGRICULTURE. 




FIG. 87. COSMOS in.OWKRS. 

From same stem, showiug variation. 

velops, and fixes type." * When a seedling 
possesses desirable qualities, " it is almost in- 
variably necessary to render these characters 
hereditary by careful and continued selection 
and in-and-inbreeding- through several gen- 
erations." 



Year-book, 1897, p. 40S. 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 



267 



While the tendency of the plant to vary is so 
essential in furnishing the starting-point for a 
new variety, it is also the most difficuU factor'- 
to overcome in making that variety approach a 
fixed type ; for out of a number of seeds from 
the plant having the desired characters, only one 



1st year 

SELECT PLAKTT^l) 



2oYE:AR ioVEAR 4t>»YEAR 5th YEAR 



SELECT PLANT (T)*K 




SELECT PLANTt 



SELECT PLANT(T) 



-DIAGRAM SHOWING METHOD OK SELECTING AND 
IMPROVING SEED. 



may come true. In that case, seeds should be 
used from that one plant only, and these planted 
in an isolated place. Possibly the next genera- 
tion may furnish several of the desired plants, 
and again seed must be selected only from 
these. 

WitJi selection, isolation, and cultivation con- 
timied for many generations, one may hope to 
obtain seeds the majority of which will come 



268 AGRICULTURE. 

true. But the work of selecting the best seeds 
from the most uniform and typical plants must 
never be neglected, or the plants will in time 
revert to degenerate types. 

If inbreeding is not possible, the variety may 
be perpetuated by bud propagation where prac- 
ticable ; indeed, in many cases it is the possi- 
bility of propagating by buds that makes the 
crossing of plants profitable.* 

C— REFERENCES. 

"Progress in Plant and Animal Breeding." Year-book, 1901. 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

" Progress of Plant Breeding in the United States." Year- 
book, 1899. 

" Hybrids and Their Utilization in Plant Breeding," Year- 
book, 1S97. 

" Influence of Environment in the Origination of Plant Varie- 
ties." Year-book, 1896. 

"Improvement of Corn by Seed Selection." Year-book, 1902. 

"Pollination of Pomaceous Fruits." Year-book, 1898. 

" Improvement of Plants by Selection." Year-book, 1898. 

"The Improvement of Our Native Fruits." Year-book, 1896. 

" Every Farm an Experiment Station." Year-book, 1897. 

"Improvement of Corn by Seed Selection." Missouri Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station. 

"The A. B.C. of Corn Culture." P. G. Holden. 11. 

" Plant Breeding." Bailey, 1897. 10. 

"Principles of Plant Culture." Goff, 1S99. Published by 
author. 

"Self-Origination of Species and Cross-Fertilization." Dar- 
win. 9. 

"Variations of Animals and Plants Under Domestication." 
Darwin. 9. 

" Origin of Cultivated Plants." De Candolle. i. 

* Bailey's Plant-Breeding, p. 51. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XL 

PRUNING OF PLANTS. 

General Principles. 

1. Development of the Organism. 

2. Purpose of the Plant to Itself. 

3. Mutual Relation Between Root and Top, 

A.— HOW TO PRUNE. 
I, Nature of the Wound. 

1. Function of the Cambium. 

2. Effect of Improper Pruning. 

IL Removal of Large Limbs. 

in. Treatment of Wounds. 

1. Pine Tar. 

2. Grafting-ivax. 

3. Lead Paint. 

IV. Pruning Back of Small Limbs. 

1. Removal of Buds. 

2. Removal of New Groivth. 

^.— WHEN TO PRUNE. 

I. Fall Pruning. 

1. Advantages : 

(i) Conserves Food. 
(2) Prevents Disease. 

2. Disadvantage : 

Not Conducive to Healing. 

269 



270 AGRICULTURE. 

II. Spring Pruning. 

1. Advantage : 

Conducive to Healing. 

2. Disadvantage : 

Waste of Food. 

III. Summer Pruning. 

(See A.— IV., i.) 

C— WHY TO PRUNE. 

I. Pruning at Transplanting. 

1 . Trees for Fruit. 

2. Trees for Timber. 

3. Trees for Shade. 

II. Pruning to Induce Fruitfulness. 

III. Pruning to Prevent Overbearing. 

IV. Pruning Hardy Shrubs. 

Z>.— REFERENCES 



CHAPTER XL 

PRUNING OF PLANTS. 

I. General Principles. 

Sound reasoning- is the first requisite to suc- 
cess in pruning. 

1. It should be borne in mind that the first 
work of importance in growing a plant is the 
devclopine7it of a strong, wcll-foruicd oroanism. 
This development depends upon selection, 
pruning, food supply, and other environmental 
conditions. 

2. The basic principle of all subsequent prun- 
ing is the fact that the paramount pui'posc oj 
the plant (to itself) is that of perpetuating the 
species, and that it does this both asexually and 
sexually. 

Asexual reproduction is accomplished by the 
formation of buds, which develop into branches. 
These may or may not become separate plants. 

Sexual reproduction is accomplished by the 
formation of buds, which develop into flowers 
and fruit, the seed of which give rise to separate 
plants. One of these methods of reproduction 
is apt to predominate, and hence the food 
supply will be taken for its support at the ex- 
pense of the other method. 

271 



273 AGRICULTURE. 

Pruning is an important factor in regulating 
and, in a measure, controlling these two adverse 
tendencies of the plant to suit man's purposes. 

3. Another point which must not be over- 
looked is the imttjial relation between root and 
top. In the normally developed plant there is a 
state of equilibrium between the leaf-system and 
the root-system. As the top develops there 
must be a corresponding development of roots 
to supply the crude material to be converted 
into food by the leaves, and in turn there must 
be a corresponding growth of the leaf-system — 
if the root-system is to be enlarged — in order to 
convert the crude material into food for the 
growth of new roots. Hence, when this equi- 
librium is disturbed, either accidentally or on 
purpose, the plant bends its energies to restore 
it. Thus it is that pruning the roots checks 
the growth of top, and pruning the top not only 
checks the growth of roots, but gives increased 
food supply to the remaining parts. 

A.—WOVJ TO PRUNE. 

I. Nature of the Wound. 

It will be seen from a careful study of a cross- 
section of a stem (Fig. 89), that in order for the 
cut surface to heal it must be in direct commu- 
nication with the cambium layer of the stcpport- 
ing stem. 

I. Function of the Cambium. — The process 



PRUNING OF PLANTS. 



273 




FIG. 89. — DIAGRAMMATIC CROSS-SECTION OK A BASSWOOD STEM 

TWO YEARS OLD. 

/ — Pith, m — Medullary raj's. c — Cambium, vb — Vascular buudle. 

of healing Is carried on by the throwing out of 
new tissue at the cut edge of the cambium, which 
gradually rolls out from 
the circumference to- 
ward the center of the 
wound (Fig. 90), where 
in time it unites and 
forms a continuous layer 
of cambium, which gives 
rise to both wood and 
bark cells, as in any other 
portion of the stem. 

// is of the 2ttmost ivi- 
portance that in remov- 
ing the limb the cut 
should be made in such 
a manner as to bring all parts of its circumfer- 





ITG. 90. — IMPROPER AND PROPER 

PRUNING. 

a — Cannot heal, b — Healing. 



274 AGRICULTURE. 

ence as near as possible to the supporting 
stem. This is done by making the cut surface 
parallel to it (Fig. 90) ; for in this case the cut 
edge of the cambium still receives its food 
supply from the supporting stem. 

2. Effect of Improper Pruning. — But if the 
limb is cut off so as to leave a projecting stub, 
healing cannot take place, since the prepared 
food for the support of this branch was elab- 
orated by its leaves and sent toward the triink; 
the supply having been removed, the cambium 
layer of this stub cannot grow. As a result, not 
only will the healing be prevented, but the cam- 
bium and bark will die back, leaving an unsightly 
stub of wood to rot down to the supporting 
limb or trunk ; and when the stub drops out, 
dust, water, and fungi, or other vegetation, will 
collect in the cavity left (Fig. 91), and thus in- 
troduce disease and decay into the heart of the 
tree, weakening its structure and possibly de- 
stroying it. 

II. Removal of Large Limbs. 

Should it become necessary to remove a large 
limb, it would be advisable to saw it off about a 
foot from the trunk of the tree, so there would 
be less danger of splitting down the trunk by 
the weight of the limb. This danger would be 
further lessened by making two cuts — the first 
below the limb to about the center, the second 
cut above the limb and just beyond the first cut, 










Z K *. £ 




^ :;; 



3 C 
O O 









z ? 









5 ^ 






> 


/5 




CS 


X 


o 


»4 


t^ 


"ni 


is 


z 


rt 


S 





S w p 



276 



AGRICULTURE. 




as in Fig. 93. The remaining stub should now be 
sawed off close to the trunk (see Fig. 90, b). 

III. Treatment of 
Wounds. 

Where the cut 

surface is large, some 

protective substance 

should be applied to 

the exposed tissue. 

Tar is sometimes 

dressing for these 

It is regarded as an 

excellent one. 

2. Another dressing which 

may be used upon any tree 

without injury is Grafting-wax 

(see Chapter IX., p. 237). 

3. Lead Paint \'s> Ao\i\:)X\.^^?> the best dressing 

for all kinds of trees, since it is not only durable, 

but to some extent antiseptic, and comparatively 

inexpensive. 

IV. Pruning Back of Small Limbs. 

I. Removal of Buds.— The ideal method of 
pruning, or that which would insure to the plant 
the least waste of energy, is the pinching or 
rubbing off of buds that would develop into 
branches which would need to be pruned off. 

This method of pruning is especially adapted 
to the early or formative period of a plant's de- 
velopment. If close attention be given to the 



FIG. 93. THE WAY 

TO REMOVE A 
LARGE LIMB. 



PRUNINC. OF PLANTS. 



i 



removal of buds the plant may Ix- made to con- 
form to any dcsircMl shape. 

l^y the removal of the terminal bud the plant 
may be made to put out lateral branches, and 
thus become short and bushy {V\g. a 

83), or by removing the lateral i(^ 

branches it will throw the more 
vii»"or into the central stem, causing- 
it to become long and slender. 

2. Removal of New Growth. — In 
large trees the; above; nu;thod is 
impracticable. The best practical 
method for such trees is to in- 
spect them each year and remove 
such branches, or portions of 
branches, as growth may indicate;. 

In doing this pruning the branch 
should be cut off just above a bud 
(as in Mg. 94), taking care not to 
cut too close to the bud, as it would then dry 
out. 



\ 



km;. 94. — WllKKK 

TO CUT TWV. 

NKW GROWTH. 



^.— WHKN TO PRUNE. 

If tlie purpose of pruning is merely to remove 
dead or deceased branches, or the pinching off 
of superflous or undesirable buds, the work may 
be done at any time when it is necessary. 

It is agreed by the best authorities that gen- 
eral pruning should be done while the trees are 
in a dormant state. There is, however, a dif- 



278 AGRICULTURE. 

ference of opinion among" these authorities as to 
whether this work should be done as soon as 
the leaves are shed in the fall or before the 
buds have begun to swell in the spring. 

I. Fall Pruning. 

1. TJic advantages of fall pruning are : (i) 
that a greater amount of food would then be 
distributed over a less number of branches ; for 
by spring, owing to the slow dissemination of 
food taking place through the winter months, 
the nutriment would already have been distrib- 
uted to all the branches of the tree, particularly 
to their terminal portions, which would be re- 
moved by spring pruning i"^'' (2) that immature 
branches, which would probably be frozen and 
tend to injure the tree, would thus be removed. 

2. However, there is one decided disadvan- 
tage in fall pruning ; that is, that the wound 
does not readily heal. This is due to the fact 
that healing is affected by the growth of the 
cambium layer, and as this is inactive in winter, 
healing cannot take place at that time. Hence, 
the exposed surface is liable to dry out or freeze, 
thereby inducing decay of the wood and invit- 
ing disease. 

II. Spring Pruning. 

I. The main advantage of spring pruning lies 
in the fact that the wound readily heals, owing 
to the active condition of the cambium layer. 

* Authorities are not agreed upon this point. 



PRUNING OF PLANTS. 379 

2. The chief disadvantage is the waste of 
energy of the plant in the loss of the accumu- 
lated food supply by the removal of the terminal 
portions of the branches. 

Exercise ii. — To study tlie effect of fall and spring 
pruning, let the student remove several small branches 
of as man}' different kinds of trees as are accessible, 
carefull}' labeling each branch pruned with the student's 
name and the date of pruning. 

In the spring let them prune off as many more 
branches from the same trees and label with date. 

Just before school closes for the year critically exam- 
ine all the branches pruned. Compare and tabulate 
results. Was the result in each case due to the lime of 
pruning or to the position and nature of the cut ? 

C— WHY TO PRUNE. 
One should never remove a limb or even a 
twig from a tree without knowing why. 
I. Pruning at Transplanting. 

The utmost care should be taken in lifting 
plants for transplanting, but even then many of 
the fine feeding roots will be broken off or 
mutilated ; consequently, the equilibrium be- 
tween root and leaf will have been destroyed. 

To re-establish the equilibrium : first, all the 
mutilated roots should be cut off, so that the 
energy of the plant may not be wasted in trying 
to restore these injured parts; second, the leaf- 
bearing surface should be reduced to correspond 
to the loss of root-system. This principle holds 
good in the transplanting of any plant. 



280 



AGRICULTURE. 



The vianncr in which phmts are pruned at 
transphmting depends largely upon the purpose 













FIG. 95. — APPLE-TREE HEADED LOW. 

for which the tree is grown. If grown ior fruit 
the tree should be headed low (Fig. 95); that 
is, the first limbs branching^ out from the trunk 



PRUNING OF PLANTS. 



281 




U. S. Dei.t. A-r. 
FIG. 96. — TREES GROWN CLOSE TOGETHER FOR TIMBER. 

should not be more than eighteen inches from 
the ground. At the same time the lateral 
branches should be pruned back so that the cen- 
tral stem will lead. 

The advantages of heading a tree low are: (i) 
it makes a tree stronger and less liable to be 



282 AGRICULTURE. 

blown over; (2) the trunk is thus protected 
from the direct rays of the sun, thereby prevent- 
ing sun-scald ; (3) that the tree's energy is con- 
served by lessening the distance through which 
the food is carried ; (4) that the fruit is easier 
gathered. 

The greatest objection in heading a tree low 
is that it renders cultivation more difficult. 

2. If a tree is grown for timber,^ tall, straight 
trunk should be encouraged by pruning off most 
of the lateral branches and planting the trees 
close together (Fig. 96), so that they will be 
forced to grow upright to obtain the light. As 
the trees develop, and room and food supply 
become insufficient, some of them should be re- 
moved. 

3. Slow-growing shade-trees require very little 
or no pruning, save the removal of diseased or 
broken branches. But rapid-growing shade- 
trees — as, some of the maples — should have a 
portion of the last season's growth pruned back 
each year, thus forming a compact head, making 
the tree stronger, and obviating the necessity of 
severe top-pruning, which renders the tree use- 
less (for shade, at least) for one year, as well as 
presenting a very unsightly appearance. 

II. Pruning to Induce Fruitfulness. 

As has been said, the paramount natural pur- 
pose of a plant is that of reproduction. Every 
plant has a certain amount of available food. In 



PRUNING OF PLANTS. 




KIG. 97. — NORWAY M.^I'LE 

(Acer platanoides^ . 

Horticultural Grounds, Missouri Experiment Station. 

the early years of its development this food supply 
should be directed to the upbuilding of a strong, 
vigorous tree; but when the tree is mature, if 
one system of reproduction predominates over 
the other, it uses more than its share of this 
available food and the other system is deprived 
of its rightful portion, and thus its development 
is checked. 

Man may, by pruning or other means, equal- 
ize the distribution of food. If vegetative 



284 AGRICULTURE. 

growth or asexual reproduction is so far in the 
ascendency as to prevent the development of 
fruit, this growth should be checked. Slight 
"heading-in induces fruitfulness by checking 
growth and by encouraging the formation of 
side spurs upon which fruit may be borne." " 

In extreme cases, where a tree has never 
fruited, the growth may be checked by reducing 
the food supply. This may be done by with- 
holding fertilizers, or stopping cultivation and 
seeding down in grass or clover for a few years, 
or by judicious root pruning. 

Root Priming. — Root pruning is attended by 
considerable risk, as the equilibrum between 
root-system and leaf-system is thus destroyed. 

There is less danger of injury to the tree when 
the work is done in spring, as evaporation is 
less, and the conditions at this season of the 
year are more favorable for the readjustment of 
the growth. 

Roots are sometimes pruned in summer, when 
the wood and fruit buds are developing for the 
next year; thus the formation of fruit buds would 
be encouraged. But at this period of the year the 
process is attended by a greater risk, as evapo- 
ration is very great. 

The work is done by making a circular ditch 
around the tree at a distance from the trunk 
corresponding to the tips of the branches. One 

* Bailey's Principles ef Agriculture, p. i66. 



PRUNING OF PLANTS. 285 

should be extremely cautious as to the extent of 
the root surface removed, since the small, grow- 
ing roots are the feeding roots upon which the 
plant is dependent for nourishment. 

III. Pruning to Prevent Overbearing. 

If sexual reproduction or the development of 
fruit predominates to such an extent as to be 
detrimental to vegetative growth, it should be 
checked by the removal of fruit buds, or a por- 
tion of the fruit, or even of some of the fruit- 
bearing branches. At the same time the 
vegetative growth should be encouraged by 
increasing the food supply through renewed 
cultivation and the application of nitrogenous 
fertilizers. 

IV. Pruning Hardy Shrubs. 

If the shrubs are grown for a hedee — as. 
the barberry {Berberis vulgaris), burning-bush 
(^Pyrus Japonica), or osage orange — the new 
growth should be sheared each year, forming a 
compact head. 

I. Early Flowering Shrubs, such as lilac, 
syringa, weigelia, and many roses, which pro- 
duce blossoms from buds developed the previous 
summer, should be pruned after they have 
bloomed. The terminal bud should be pinched 
out of the new growth to induce lateral branches, 
which will develop blossom buds for the next 
year. Pruning these shrubs in early spring 
would remove the blossom-bearinor wood. 



286 AGRICULTURE. 

2. Sliritbs which produce their blossoms from 
buds produced the same stuuincr, such as the 
althea, hydrangea, and button bush, should be 
pruned in early spring to increase the blossom- 
bearing wood. 

To admit more freely the air and light, the old 
branches — and, if too thick, some of the entire flowering 
stems — should be cut out. This will tend to increase 
the size of the blossoms, which may be further enlarged 
by pinching out some of the flower buds. (See "Plant 
Improvement.") 

Exercise 12. — kw expedition should be made to an 
orchard or grove, for the purpose of observing the actual 
conditions of all phases of the work suggested in this 
chapter. A written report should be required, touching 
upon all the points of the outline, which are exemplified 
by any plants seen during the trip, (a) Note upon a 
mature plant the effect, upon its use and upon its 
strength, produced by correct, incorrect, or no pruning 
in its eaiiy stages of development. 

(b) If in fruiting season, do you note any trees which 
are overbearing? Any that are not bearing ? Can you 
see why ? How would you effect a change ? 

{c) Note wounds that are healing. Describe and ex- 
plain. Do you note any that have not healed ? Why? 
Could this condition have been prevented ? Explain. 
How will it affect the tree? What treatment would you 
advise ? 

2;.— REFERENCES. 

" Pruning and Training of Grapes." Yearbook, iS(j6. United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

" Principles of Pruning and Care of Wounds in Woody Plants." 
Year-book, 1895. 

" Pruning of Trees and Other Plants." Year-book, 1898. 

" The Pruning Book." Bailey. 1899. 10. 

" The American Fruit Culturist." Thomas. 1S97. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XII. 

ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 

.4.— INJURIOUS INSECTS. 

I. General Characters of Insects. 
II. Metamorphosis. 

III. Apparatus Needed in Collecting and Rearing 
Insects. 

1. Net. 

2. Cyanide /'Ottle. 

3. Byecdiiig-jars. 

IV. Field Trip. 

V. Laboratory Studies. 

1 . Study of the Live Insect. 

2. Grasshopper. 

3. Nymph. 

4. Butterfly., or M-th. 

5. Caterpillar. 

VI. Economic Classification of Insects. 

1. Group I.— With Bitini^ Mouth-parts. 

2. Group II. — With Sucking Mouth-parts. 

VII. Preventives. 

1. Removal of Debris. 

2. Change of Crops. 

VIII. Insecticides. 

1. Group I. — Poisonous Insecticides. 

2. Group II. — Contact Insecticides. 

287 



288 AGRICULTURE. 

IX. Study on Spraying. 

X. Natural Enemies. 

1. The Birds. 

2. Predaceous Insects. 

(i) Specific Examples. 
(2) Required Exercise. 

XI. Specific Examples of Injurious Insects. 

1. Flant-lice. 

2. Rose-slug. 

3. Tent-caterpillar. 

4. Forest Tent- caterpillar. 

5. Codling- moth. 

6. The Borers. 

(i) Example: The Round-hkaded Apple-tree 

Borer. 
(2) Preventives. 

i5.— INJURIOUS FUNGI. 

I. Specific Examples. 

1. Brown Rot. 

2. Black Rot. 

3. Bitter Rot. 

4. Apple Scab. . 

II. Fungicides. 

1. Bordeaux Mixture. Dust Bordeaux. 

2. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. 

C— REFERENCES. 



CHAPTER XII. 

ENEMIES or PLANTS. 

In dealing with plants one of the most im- 
portant problems which arises is how to meet 
their enemies. In order to do this one must 
know something of the nature and habits of 
each particular species which he needs to con- 
trol. Actual observation of them at work is the 
best means of obtaining a knowledge of the 
enemies of plants. But some good work on in- 
sects and fungi (like those listed at the end of 
the chapter) should be consulted, or if none of 
these are at hand, one should write to one's own 
State Entomoloofist for advice and literature. 

These enemies may be divided into two great 
classes: (i) animal forms, (2) plant forms. 
Among animal forms the most important ene- 
mies of plants are injzcrious insects. 

y^.— INJURIOUS INSECTS. 

I. The General Characters of Insects 

in the adult state are one pair of antennae; three 
body divisions, head, thorax, and abdomen ; 
three pairs of legs, and two pairs of wings. 

2S9 



390 AGRICULTURE. 

II. Metamorphosis, or Development, of Insects. 

All insects develop from eggs, and all undergo 
a more or less marked change in form during 
their life-cycle.* 

Many insects when they emerge irom the Ggg 
are much like the adult form. These nymphs, 
as they are called, have no wings. They feed 
greedily, and as growth demands the hardened 
skins split and are cast — that is, the insects molt. 
The wings, if wings are present in the adult 
stage, develop as little pads, which grow larger 
with each molt until the adult stage is reached, 
when growth ceases. This method of develop- 
ment is called incomplete metaniorphosis, the 
three stages of which are ^gg, nymph, and adult. 
Common examples of this method of develop- 
ment are grasshoppers, crickets, plant-lice, and 
dragon-flies. 

Many other insects, when they leave the ^^g, 
differ markedly in form from that of the adult. 
These caterpillars, grubs, maggots, etc., as the 
case may be, are called the larva;. In this larval 
or second stage they feed, grow, and molt, but 
do not change their form. When they are full 
grown they stop eating, become restless, and 
pass into the third stage of their development 
(that of the pupa), some attaching themselves to 
a stick or leaf, others spinning a cocoon, while 

* Those insects belonging to the small order T/iysaiiirra un- 
dergo no metamorphosis. 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 



591 



still others form a leathery case and bury them- 
selves in the ground. Here they remain quiet 
for a time, when the pupa-cases split open and 
the adult forms emerge, lay their eggs, and thus 




FIG. gS.^NET FOR COLLECTING INSECTS. 

their life-cycle is completed, and the life-cycle 
of another generation is begun. 

III. Apparatus Needed in Collecting and Rear- 
ing Insects. 

A few simple, inexpensive articles are all that is 
necessary. Nets, cyanide bottles (Fig. 99), and a 
few empty bottles will be needed in collecting. 

I. The net may be made by bending a heavy 
wire into a circle about a foot in diameter, turn- 
ing the ends of the wire out, as shown in Fig. 
98. For a handle an old broomstick may be 
used. A hole should be made in the end by 
burning it with a hot iron rod or boring it with 
a small bit. Now fasten the ends of the wire 
firmly into this hole with pegs or nails. Make 
a cheese-cloth sack a yard long, round one cor- 



292 



AGRICULTURE. 



ner off, and firmly sew the open end to the wire, 
as in Fig-. 98. 

2. Cyanide Bottle for Killino- Insects. — Place 
in a wide-mouthed bottle, which will hold about 
a pint, a few small pieces of potassium cyanide. 
This should be handled with great care, as it is 




Potass ivfn 




FIG. 99. — CYANIDE BOTTLE. 







FIG. 100. — BREEDING-JAR 
FOR REARING INSECTS. 



extremely poisonous. Now cover the cyanide 
with a layer of plaster of Paris. Thoroughly 
moisten the plaster of Paris with water, pouring 
it in slowly through a funnel to prevent the 
sides of the bottle from being smeared. Let it 
stand until the plaster of Paris sets. Remove 
any surplus water, and allow the bottle to be- 
come thoroughly dry before using. Tightly 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 293 

close the bottle with a cork thick enough to be 
easily removed (Fig. 99). 

3. Breeding-jars for rearing insects should be 
prepared before the insects are collected. Place 
about two inches of clean sand in the bottom of 
glass fruit-jars ; moisten the sand, and provide 
covers of cheese-cloth, or mosquito-netting, and 
narrow rubber bands to keep them in place. 

IV. Field Trip. 

Equipped with net, cyanide bottle, and empty bottles 
for the reception of live insects, the class should make 
afield trip to study the habitat and the habits of insects, 
and to collect their own material for laboratory work. 

(^j") Look in the grass and weeds, under leaves, stones 
and boards, and on the bark of trees. Are some insects 
harder to find than others ? Why ? Why do you find 
certain kinds in one place rather than in another? Ob- 
serve especially upon what plants and what part of the 
plant each species is found feeding. Collect a portion 
of this plant to place in the breeding-jar with this insect 
when you get home. Notice how the plant has been 
affected by the feeding of the insect. Are there any 
holes in the leaves or stem ? How were they made ? In 
what stage of the development of the insect was the 
damage done ? (See " Water Forms," a and b?) 

V. Laboratory Studies. 

I. Study of the Live Insect. — Keep each species of in- 
sect in the breeding-jars supplied with fresh food, and 
watch each through all the subsequent changes of devel- 
opment. 

{a) Make careful notes and drawings on each stage. 

{b) Does the insect eat the tissue or simply suck the 
juices of its plant-food ? Hoin does it obtain its food in 
each stage of development ? 



294 



AGRICULTURE. 



(t") Will any of tlie insects in the larval or adult form 
eat other insects in any stage cf development ? 

Water Forms. — If the students have access to a pond 
or stream, it would be both interesting and instructive 




FIG. lOI. — COLLECTING INSECTS. 



to (a) collect forms which pass through some or all the 
stages of development in the water. 

[d) Take a quantity of the mud and water in which 
these \\ater forms are found, together with algae, or 
other food, back to the laboratory, and place with the 
different species in breeding-jars similar to that in Fig. 

lOO, 

{c) Observe all changes in their development, and make 
careful notes and drawings of eech stage. 

(d) If there are a number of any one kind, it would 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 295 

be well to preserve some of them in a solution of forma- 
lin (made by mixing one part of formaldehyde, 40 per 
cent., with 19 parts of water) for museum specimens. If 
possible, have each stage of every species represented in 
your collection of specimens. 

2. The Grasshopper. — Find the three body divisions — 
head, thorax, and abdomen. 

The Head. — (1) Find the antennce (slender feelers). 
How many segments in each ? Draw. 

(2) Find the compoutid eyes. Examine a portion of one 
under the low power of the microscope. What is the 
general shape of these parts, or facets, of the eye ? Draw 
several of them. In what direction can the grasshopper 
see ? 

(3) How many ocelli, or simple eyes, do you find ? 

(4) Mouth-parts. — {a) Find the labrum, or upper lip. 
Lift and remove it. Draw. 

{I)) Note the mandibles, or true jaws, exposed by the 
removal of tlie labrum. In what direction can you move 
them ? Take out one. Draw. Does the grasshopper 
obtain its food by biting or sucking ? 

(c) Find the labium, or lower lip. Remove it. Draw. 
Is it a single appendage or two united ? 

{il) Look for the labial palpi attached to the labium. 
How many segments in t.^ch. palpus ? 

{e) Find the maxillcc, just in front of the labium. These 
each consist of three parts united at the base ; the outer 
one, tlie maxillary palpus j tlie middle one, a spoon- 
shaped piece, the galea ; the inner piece, the lacinia, 
[maxilla proper). Draw. 

(5) Take a fresh specimen and draw a front view of 
the head, labeling all the parts.* 

* Every question in the above outline should be answered by 
actual observations upon the insects. It may be that the student 
will be better able to answer some of these questions, after hav- 
ing made the laboratory study of the live insect. 



296 AGRICULTURE. 

The Thorax. — The segments of the thorax are the 
prothorax, mesotliorax, and vtetathorax. (i) What append- 
ages has each? Look on the mesothorax, just above 
the legs, for a pair of spiracles or breatliing pores. Do 
you find another pair between mesothorax and meta- 
thorax ? (2) Draw the thorax, and label the parts. 

The Legs. — (i) How do the first and second pair of 
legs differ from the third pair in size, and in the direc- 
tion in which they extend from the body? Why? 
What modes of locomotion lias the grasshopper? 

(2) Make a careful study of the hind legs, {a) Note 
the coxa, a short segment attached to the body. Next to 
it is the trochanter, another short segment. The femur 
is the large segment following this, attached to which 
is the slender tibia. With what is tlie latter armed ? 
For what purpose ? The terminal portion is the tarsus 
or foot. Is it segmented ? Note the hooks and pads. 

{p) Make a drawing of the entire leg, and label each 
part. 

The Wings. — {a) Note the wings on one side of the 
body while folded, and their position with reference to 
the body; with reference to each other. 

{b) Spread tliem out and compare as to size, shape, 
color, use, texture, and position. 

{c) Make a carefid drawing. 

The Abdomen. — (i) How many abdominal segments 
do you find ? Are the last three distinct ? 

^2) {a) Look alon^ the groove on each side of the 
abdomen for spiracles. How many in each of these 
segments ? In how many segments are they found ? 

{p) Catch a live grasshopper and watch it breathe. 
Do the walls of the abdomen move ? What movements 
have the spiracles ? Try to drown the grasshopper by 
holding its head under water. Explain. 

(3) Find the ear membrane on the side of the first 
segment. 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 297 

{4) (a) Examine tlie end of tlie abdomen. Is it blunt, 
and do you find two appendages, the cerci, on the upper 
side ? If so, the specimen is a male. If the end of the 
abdomen is tapering and divided into four points — parts 
of the ovipositor — the specimen is a female. 

{l>) Draw the abdomen, showing all the parts. 

Draw the entire grasshopper as seen from the side. 
Now, before discarding the specimen, cut through the 
mouth beyond the oesophagus into the crop, open it, and 
examine its contents. See if you can find out what is 
the grasshopper's food. 

3. T/ie A^xiiiph, or Young Grass/topper. — Do vou find all 
the parts mentioned in the study of the adult grass- 
hopper present in your specimen ? {a) Compare the 
parts with those of the adult. 

{/>) Draw a side view of the nymph. 

4. T/ie Butterfly, or Moth. — Identify tiie three body 
divisions, and locate the antennae, eyes, legs, wings, and 
spiracles. Compare with those of the grasshopper. 

Mouth-parts. — Make a careful study of the mouth- 
parts, (i) Note .the two short projections, the labial 
palpi, in the front of the head. 

(2) Uncoil the long tube between the palpi and ex- 
amine it. The parts of the tube correspond to the 
maxillse of the grasshopper. 

(3) ('0 Does the butterfly obtain its food by sucking 
or biting? Are there other mouth-parts present? 

[b) Make a drawing of the mouth-parts present in their 
natural position. 

(r) Remove them, and draw. 

5. Caterpillar. — Make a careful examination of some 
caterpillar, the larva of a moth or butterfly — for ex- 
ample, the tomato-worm. 

(i) Do you find the general characters of the adult 
insect — three body divisions, one pair of antennae, and 
three pairs of legs — in the caterpillar? 



298 AGRICULTURE. 

(2) Do you find eyes, spiracles, and mouth-parts? 
How do they compare with those of the adult moth ? 
(See mouth-parts of the butterfly.) 

(3) Make drawings of the entire larva, showing all 
parts. 

(4) Remove the mouth-parts, and draw. Are they 
adapted tor biting or sucking? 

VI. Economic Classification of Insects. 

Insects are divided into two great groups ac- 
cording to their mouth-parts, in order that one 
may know what insecticides to apply in com- 
bating them 

Group I. — This includes all insects in that 
stage of their development in which their mouth 
parts are formed for biting. These insects 
actually bite off, chew, and swallow small por- 
tions of the plant or other material upon which 
they feed. Consequently, they would be killed 
by poison placed upon the food and taken into 
the stomach. Common examples of this group 
are grasshoppers, beetles, and caterpillars. 

Group II. — This includes all insects in that 
stage of their development in which their mouth- 
parts are formed for sucking. These insects 
obtain their food by thrusting the beak below 
the surface of the plant or animal upon which 
they feed and sucking its juices, but they do not 
swallow any of its tissue; hence, poison placed 
upon the surface of the plant-food would not be 
taken into the stomach by the insects of this 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 399 

group. Plant-lice, scale insects, mosquitoes, tiies, 
etc., are examples of Group II. 

The student should have already observed 
that an insect, according to the form of its 
mouth-parts, may in one stage of its develop- 
ment belong to one of these groups, while in 
another stage it belongs to the other — as, the 
tomato-worm, the larval stage of the sphinx- 
moth, which belongs to Group I., while the 
adult stage, the moth, belongs to Group II. 

VII. Preventives. 

A siuall amount of time and labor spent in 
preventing insects from becoming established 
on the farm is often of more value than a great 
amount spent in trying to destroy them. 

1. Removal of Debris. — By the prompt re- 
moval and burning of all dying or diseased 
branches, trees, or plants, decayed fruits, and 
general debris, many insects, as well as their 
eggs, will be destroyed; while if such mate- 
rial is allowed to remain, it will afford protection 
for insects duringr their hibernatinof and breed- 
ing seasons, thus promoting the development of 
overwhelming^ numbers. 

2. Change of Crops. — If an insect pest makes 
its appearance in a field of grain, one may pre- 
vent its devastation the following year by plant- 
ing the field in some other crop upon which the 
insect does not feed. For example, the Hes- 
sian fly may be observed in a field of wheat. 



300 AGRICULTURE. 

The following- year the development of the 
Hessian tly in this field may be prevented by 
putting in a crop upon which it does not feed — 
as, corn or clover. 

VIII. Insecticides. 

In general, insecticides also are divided into 
two groups. 

Groiip I. — Poisonous Insecticides, or those 
that kill by being taken into the stomach of the 
insect. The principal poison in this group of 
insecticides is arsenic in some form. 

Paris o-reen is the most common, and if una- 
dulterated is a very effective arsenical insecti- 
cide. It is prepared as follows: 

Paris green i pound 

Quicklime i pound 

Water 100-300 gallons 

Mix thoroughly, and strain the mixture 
through a gunny-sack or sieve. The purpose 
of the lime is to render any free arsenic in the 
Paris green insoluble, since soluble arsenic 
would poison the tissue of the plant. It must 
be remembered that the particles of arsenic are 
held in suspension and not in solution ; hence, 
the mixture must be kept well stirred while 
being- applied. In spraying plants with tender 
foliage — as, the peach and plum — the Paris green 
mixture should be diluted. 

Scheele's green differs from Paris green in 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 301 

that it does not contain acetic acid, and in the 
per cent, of arsenic. It has the advantages of 
being held longer in suspension, as it is a finer 
powder, and of costing only about half as much. 
Home preparation insures purer and better 
arsenical spraying mixtures — as, arsenite of soda 
and arsenate of lead. 

White arsenic i pound 

Sal soda 4-5 pounds 

Water 2 gallons 

Mix the above ingredients and boil until clear 
— about fifteen minutes. Add enough water to 
replace that which boiled away. This forms a 
stock solution which should be placed in Mason 
jars, labeled poison, and kept until needed. 
This stock solution is used similarly to Paris 
green. Since it is soluble in water, and hence 
would damage the foliage, it is prepared for use 
by mixing two quarts of the stock solution and 
eight or ten pounds of freshly slaked lime with 
one hundred gallons of water. 

Arsenate of Lead.^ — This insecticide has 
several advantages over the others just men- 
tioned: (i) it can be used in stronger solutions 
and in larger quantities without injuring tender 
foliage, since it is absolutely insoluble in water ; 
(2) it will remain longer in suspension ; (3) 

* Commercial arsenate of lead sold under the name of dis- 
parene, is said to be perfectly reliable. It comes in paste form, 
and sticks on the foliage well. 



302 AGRICULTURE. 

being white, it can be more readily seen on the 
foliage, thus indicating what has and what has 
not been sprayed. It is made as follows : 

Arsenate of soda 4 ounces 

Acetate of lead ii ounces 

Water 25-100 gallons 

Glucose 2 quarts 

Dissolve the acetate of lead in a zvooden bucket 
of warm water, and the arsenate of soda in 
another bucket of warm water. When thor- 
oughly dissolved, pour both into the quantity 
of water to be used, according to the strength 
of the poison desired, at the same time stirring 
rapidly. If two quarts of glucose be added, the 
spray will not be so easily washed off by rains. 

In applying any of the arsenical mixtures, the 
spraying should not be continued until the water 
drips from the foliage, as the fine particles of 
poison are carried away in the drops instead of 
being left upon the leaf by evaporation after a 
less quantity is used.* 

Group II. — Contact Insecticides, or those that 
kill by contact with the body of the insect. 

These may be effective in two ways, either by 

*Di'ST Strays. — White Hellebore the root of a plant, kills 
both by contact and by poisoning. 

It may be applied dry or in the liquid form. If used dry, it 
may be easily applied by mixing it with three or four times its 
weight of flour and dusting it over the plants when they are 
moist with dew, from a little cheese-cloth sack or applied with a 
hand dust-spray or bellows. 

Paris Green may be used dry by mixing it with ten times its 
weight of flour, and may be applied in the same way as the 
Hellebore. 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 303 

penetrating the breathing pores and suffocating 
the insect or by corroding the body. 

(i) Kerosene Emulsion. — Of the contact in- 
secticides, kerosene emulsion is one almost 
universally used by Agricultural Experiment 
Stations. 

The emulsion formula : 

Soap 1^ pound 

Soft water i gallon 

Kerosene 2 gallons 

The best soap for this purpose is whale-oil 
soap, though ordinary soft soap or hard soap 
will answer. The soap should be shaved into 
the water and thoroughly dissolved by heating. 
When boiling hot, pour the solution into the 
kerosene, aioay from the fire, and churn vigor- 
ously about ten minutes by pumping the liquid 
back and forth with a force-pump until it resem- 
bles buttermilk. The emulsifying will increase 
the bulk about one-third; hence, the emulsion 
should not be prepared in too small a vessel. 

If tightly sealed, this stock solution will keep 
for some time. When wanted, dilute with ten 
to twenty parts of water. If too strong, the 
kerosene will injure tender foliage. Apply with 
a spray-pump (Fig. 102) to the infested plants. 
The emulsion must come in contact with the 
body of the insect, so that the kerosene may 
penetrate the breathing pores and suffocate the 



304 



AGRICULTURE. 



insect. The soap also tends to clog the breath- 
ing pores. 

(2) Tobacco in various forms is a useful in- 
secticide. Its use is especially recommended 

for house plants, 
greenhouses, gardens, 
and orchards. As a 
spray, it is prepared 
by steeping the stems 
of refuse tobacco, and 
usinof the tea in a di- 
luted form. Nikoteen 
as commercially pre- 
pared is excellent for 
house plants and 
roses if applied in a 
dilute form. 

Tobacco dust or 
stems is an excellent 
preventive or remedy 
when scattered about the Hoor under benches 
in greenhouses. It is doubly useful when 
scattered about on the surface of the soil around 
plants, since it is rich in potash, and acts as a 
fertilizer as well as an insecticide. 

Tobacco Smudge. — This is an especially good 
remedy in the greenhouse, or in places where 
the smoke can be confined. The smudge is 
made by slow/y burning moistened tobacco, 
taking care that it does not burst into flame. 




FIG. 102. — A BUCKET SPRAY. 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 



305 



Care should be taken not to allow the plants 
to be too long exposed to the strong fumes, 
or the foliage will be damaged ; hence, it will be 
necessary to repeat the smoking.* 

Carbon bisulphide is especially adapted for 

use in store- 
houses, seed- 
boxes, mu- 
seum - cases, 
etc., or as a 
remedy for 
underground 
insects, such 
as borers and 
root-lice. 

It is a color- 
less, mobile, 
and a very 
volatileliquid. 
It is not only very infiarnmable, hut ex- 
treme/y poisonous ; therefore, great caution 
should be taken in using this insecticide. 
Under no condition should a lighted lamp, or a 




FIG. 103 (a). — THE BORDEAUX NOZZLE. 




FIG. 103 (/')• — HAND STRAY — CUNVENIENT SPRAY FOR LOW PLANTS. 



* There is nothing better for fumigating than " Nikoteen Aphis 
Punk." 



306 AGRICULTURE. 

cigar, or even a spark of fire, be brought near 
the fumes. 

For storehouses, bins, etc., place the liquid in 
small, shallow dishes. These should be placed 
near the top of the bin, since the fumes of car- 
bon bisulphide are heavier than air. This bin 
should be kept tightly closed for twenty-four to 
forty-eight hours, and then zvell ventilated. 
The amount of the liquid used should be in the 
proportion of one pint to one thousand cubic 
feet of space. For destroying root pests, small 
vertical holes should be made in the soil around 
the plant. Into each hole pour a teaspoonful of 
the carbon bisulphide and cover at once. Car- 
bon bisulphide is also useful in protecting furs 
and clothing, since it volatilizes and leaves no 
stain. The odor is so disagreeable and pene- 
trating that the clothing must be well aired for 
several days before wearing. 

Of the contact insecticides that kill by cor- 
roding the body of the insect, those most com- 
monly used are lime, soap, and carbolic acid. 
These are effective on soft-bodied insects, lime 
being, perhaps, the most important. Lime is 
useful both as a preventive and a remedy. It 
may be applied dry as a dust or as a whitewash. 

Some of the contact insecticides — as, kerosene 
emulsion and carbon bisulphide — are equally ef- 
fective upon biting and sucking insects, since 
they kill by suffocation. 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 307 

IX. study on Spraying. 

Exercise 13 — (a) From the formulas given, compute 
the amount of each material required to make one-half 
gallon of some one arsenical spray — as, Paris green — and 
one of the contact insecticides — as, kerosene emulsion — 
and carefully prepare each. 

{U) Spray some plants infested with caterpillars or 
slugs — as, the tomato-worm or tlie rose-slug, and other 
plants infested with plant-lice — with each of these insec- 
ticides prepared, and watch results. 

(c) To be absolutely sure of these results, place a por- 
tion of the plants infested by each of these insects ex- 
perimented upon in each of two breeding-jars, placing 
that portion sprayed with Paris green in- one jar and 
that sprayed with kerosene emulsion in the other. 
Label each, and note the effect of each spray upon each 
kind of insect. 

(^/) Did the Paris green affect all of them in the same 
way? Examine the mouth-parts of each insect experi- 
mented upon and explain the action of the poison. 

{e) Did the kerosene affect all alike ? Explain. 

X. Natural Enemies. 

Among the natural enemies of insects are 
birds, predaceous \ insects, toads, spiders, etc. 
Few persons realize the extent of the work 
done by these natural enemies in exterminating 
noxious insects. Particularly is this true of the 
birds and predaceous insects. 

I. The Bi7^ds to which we so begrudge our 
fruit and grain are more than compensating us 
for this loss by keeping in check insects that 
would otherwise increase with such rapidity as 
to endanger the entire crop of orchard or field. 



308 



AGRICULTURE. 



Of the birds of the open field the farmer has 
no better friend than the meadow-lark. It is 
unrivaled as a destroyer of injurious insects. 

The stomachs of two hundred and thirty- 
eight meadow-larks, collected from twenty-four 
different States, and in every month of the year, 




FIG. 104. — MEADOW-LAKK {.Salurnella magna). 
(United States Department of Agriculture.) 



examined by the United States Division of En- 
tomology, showed that 72 per cent, of the food 
of these larks was insects, while only 27 per 
cent, was vegetable matter. 

The unassuming little house-wren is one of 
the most useful birds in destroying insect pests. 

Actual examination of the contents of the 
stomachs of wrens by the Division of Entomol- 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 



309 



ogy at Washington shows that 98 per cent, of 
the food of the wren consists of injurious in- 
sects. 

Many other birds of wide geographical distri- 
bution are recognized as the farmer's friends; 




FIC. 105. — HOUSE WREN (Troglodytes a-don'S. 
(United States Department of Agriculture.) 

among them are the robin, oriole (Fig. 117), 
mocking-bird, brown thrasher, chickadee, and 
catbird. 

But there is another class of birds which is 
much persecuted because the farmer errone- 



310 AGRICULTURE. 

ously considers them his enemies. To this 
class belong the crow, the blackbird, and- many 
species of hawks and owls.* Examination of 
the stomach contents of many of these birds has 
proven that they are more beneficial than harm- 
ful, destroying many insects as well as injurious 
rodents, such as mice and gophers. 

Again, some birds eat more or less weed seed 
throughout the year, even when insects are 
abundant. But their work practically extends 
from early autumn until late spring. During 
cold weather most of the birds about the farm 
feed extensively upon seeds. It is not uncom- 
mon for a crow blackbird to eat from thirty to 
forty seeds of smartweed or bindweed, or a 
field-sparrow one hundred seeds of crab-grass, 
at a single meal. In the stomach of a Nuttall's 
sparrow were found three hundred seeds of 
amaranth, and in that of another three hundred 
seeds of lamb's-quarters ; a tree-sparrow had 
consumed seven hundred seeds of pigeon-grass, 
while a snowOake from Shrewsbury, Mass., 
which had been breakfasting in a garden in 
February, had picked up one thousand seeds of 
pigweed. 

Among the weeds which are troublesome in 
fields, especially among hoed crops, may be 
mentioned ragweed {Ambrosia artemisics folia), 
several species of the genus Polygonum, includ- 

* Year-book, 1897. 




FIG. I06. FOUR COMMON SKEU-EATIXG BIRDS. 

a — Jiinco. 5— White-throated Sparrow, c — Fox-sparrow, d — Tree-sparrow. 

311 



312 AGRICULTURE. 

ing bindweed (/*. couvo/vii/iis), smartweed (^P. 
lap at hi folium^, and knotweed {P. aviculare), 
pigweed {^Amarantus I'etroflexiis and other spe- 
cies), nut-grass and other sedges {Cyperaceci), 
crab-grass {Paiiiciun sangitinale), pigeon-grass 
(^CJia'tocloa viridis) and (C gla2ica), lamb's-quar- 
ters [Cheitopoditim album), and chickweed [Al- 
sine media). Every one of these weeds is an 
annual, not living over the winter, and their 
seeds constitute fully three-fourths of the food 
of a score of native sparrows during the colder 
half of the year. Prof. F. E. Beal, who has 
carefully studied this subject in the upper Mis- 
sissippi valley, " has examined the stomachs of 
many tree-sparrows and found them entirely 
filled with weed seed, and concluded that each 
bird consumed at least a quarter of an ounce 
daily Upon this basis, after making a fair 
allowance of the number of birds to the square 
mile, he calculated that in the State of Iowa 
alone the tree sparrow annually destroys about 
1,750,000 pounds, or about 875 tons, of weed 
seed during its winter sojourn." '' 

On a farm in Maryland " tree-sparrows, fox- 
sparrows, whitethroats, song-sparrows, and snow- 
birds fairly swarmed during December in the 
briers of the ditches between the corn-fields. 
They came into the open fields to feed upon 

* Quoted from the Year-book, 1898: " Birds as Weed Destroy- 
ers." 




From Ye.ir-book, 1898. 
FIG. 107. — FOUR COMMON WEEDS, THE SEEDS OF WHICH ARE 
EATEN KY BIRDS. 
a — Amaranth, d— Crab-grass, r— Ragweed, d — Pigeon-grass. 



313 



314 



AGRICULTURE. 



weed seed, and worked 
hardest where the smart- 
weed formed a tanorle on 
low ground. Later in the 
season the place was care- 
fully examined. In one 
corn-field near a ditch the 
s mart w e e d formed a 
thicket over three feet 
high, and the ground 
beneath was literally black 
with seeds. Examination 
showed that these seeds 
had been cracked open and 
the meat removed. In a 
rectangular space of eight- 
een square inches were 
found 1,130 half seeds and 
only two whole seeds. 
Even as late as May 13 
the birds were still feed- 
inof on the seeds of these 

(I— Bindweed. /^-I^ambs-quarters. and Other WCeds lu the 
c— Purslane, rf- Amaranth. ''~ r i i > > ^ \ i 

Spotted spurge. /-Ragweed. ^— UeldS. ' A SearCll WaS 

Pigeon-grass. /,-Dandelion. ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ VarioUS 

weeds, but so thoroughly had the work been 
done that only half a dozen seeds could be 
found. The birds had taken practically all the 




Year-book, 1S98. 

FIG. lOS. — WEED SEEDS COM- 
MONLY EATEN BY BIRDS. 



* Quoted from the Year-book, 1S9S: " Bird.s as Weed Destroy- 
ers." 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 315 

seed that was not covered. The song-sparrow 
and several others scratch up much buried seed. 
No less than fifty different birds act as weed 
destroyers, and the noxious plants which they 
help to eradicate number more than threescore 
species. Some, the blackbirds, the bobolink, 
the dove, and the English sparrow, in spite of 
their grain-eating proclivities, do much good by 
consuming large quantities of weed seed. 
Horned larks, cowbirds, shore-larks, and gros- 
beaks also render considerable service, while the 
meadow-lark is even more beneficial. The 
" quail as an enemy of insect pests and destroyer 
of weed seed has few equals on the farm. 
Goldfinches destroy weeds not touched by other 
birds, confining their attacks chiefly to one 
group of plants (the Compositse), many of the 
members of which are serious pests. But the 
birds which accomplish most as weed destroyers 
are the score or more of native sparrows that 
flock to the weed patches in early autumn and 
remain until late spring. Because of their gre- 
garious and terrestial habits, they are efficient 
consumers of the seeds of ragweed, pigeon-grass, 
crab-grass, bindweed, purslane, smartweed, and 
pigweed (Fig. io6). In short, these birds are 
little weeders whose work is seldom noted, but 
always felt." "* 

* Quoted from the Year-hook, i8g8 : " Birds as Weed Destroy- 
ers." 



316 



AGRICULTURE. 



When one considers, then, that the greater 
per cent, of the food of birds is composed of in- 
sects, and that of the vegetable material they 
consume a large per cent, is weed seed, and that 
they obtain fully one-half of the grain they do 
eat from the waste of the feed-yard and other 
places, and this largely in the winter months, 




FIG. 109. — "LOOK OUT 



when insects are scarce, it will be realized that 
the best and cheapest means of keeping insects in 
check is the encotiragement and protection of 
birds. 

It would be cheaper to allow the birds a 
portion of the grain or fruit than to allow 
the insects to take all, which would happen 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 317 

in a few years if the birds were extermin- 
ated.* 

" What! would you rather see tlie incessant stir 
Of insects in the windrows of the hay, 

And hear the locust and the grasshopper 
Their melancholy hurdy-gurdies play ? 

Is this more pleasant to you than the whir 
Of meadow-lark, and her sweet roundelay, 

Or twitter of little field-fares, as you take 

Your nooning in the shade of bush and brake ? 

" You call them thieves and pillagers; but know, 
They are the winged wardens of your farms. 
Who from the cornfields drive the insidious foe. 

And from your harvests keep a hundred harms ; 
Even the blackest of them all, the crow, 

Renders good service as your man at arms, 
Crushing the beetle in his coat of mail. 
And crying havoc on the slug and snail." 

— The Birds of Killifigworth, Longfellow. 

2. Predaceoiis Insects. — Predaceoiis insects, 
or those that prey upon or eat other insects, are 
also helpful to the farmer. 

(i) Specific Examples. — Among the most 
useful of these insects are several species of 
ladybugs {Coccincllidcr). 

Both the adult and larval forms feed upon 



* It would be a profitable investment to plant out some Russian 
mulberry-trees on purpose for the birds, or to grow in waste 
places and corners such plants as hemp and sunflowers, allowing 
them to stand throughout the winter as supplies for the birds 
when food is scarce. 



318 



AGRICULTURE. 




plant-lice and scale insects. The ladybugs are 
small, rather pretty, turtle-shaped beetles nearly 
always bright colored (orange or red), with jet 
black spots upon them, or black with white, red, 

or yellow spots (Fig. 
I lo). This bright color 
is a warning to the birds 
that these bugs are un- 
pleasant to the taste ; 
hence, they are seldom 
eaten by the birds. The 
larva is equally protect- 
ed by its terrifying ap- 
pearance, since it is cov- 
FiG. \\o.—Anatisis-pu)ictata, ered with long or sharp 
, , '. spmescriP^. wo a). 

(After Riley.) r V & / 

The ladybugs are very 
common, and are found upon plants infested 
with plant-lice and scale insects (Fig. 1 1 1). The 
fruit growers of California prevented the de- 
struction of their orchards by importing a 
species of ladybug from Australia to prey upon 
these scale insects.* 

But there are enemies in the camp : three 
species of ladybugs are injurious to plants. 
One species (Fig. 112), in both larval and adult 
stages, devours the leaves, flowers, and green 
pods of the bean. Another species feeds upon 

* The United States Division of Entomology has imported a 
Chinese ladybug to prey upon the San Jose scale. 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 



319 







KIG. ITI.- -1 ADYBUG AND LARVA PREYING UPON SCAl.K INSECTS 
INFESTING A I'EAR. 

(After Howard and Marlatt, Division of Entomology, Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C.) 

squashes, melons, and cucumbers. This beetle 
is yellowish in color with big black spots, and is 
slightly pubescent.;^ The larva is also yellow 
and covered with forked spines. 

Lace-winged Fly. — Another strong ally in 
fighting our insect foes is the common lace 




)fe»i'-book 1898. 



FIG. 112. — Epilackna corrupts. 



a — lyarva. ^—Beetle, c— Pupa, rf— Egg mass. All about three times 
natural size. 



320 



AGRICULTURE. 



winged fly, or Aphis lion (Fig. 113, a). It is a 
beautiful little creature, with brown antennae 
and large, lustrous, golden eyes. Its body is of 




FIG. 113. — CHRYSOPA SPECIES. 
(After Brehm.) 



a pale green color, as are also its wings of deli- 
cate lace. Its attractive appearance, however 
alluring to the birds, is protected by a disagree- 
able odor. The eggs, laid in clusters, each Ggg 
upon a white, threadlike stalk, look like a 
diminutive grove (Fig. 113,^). This stalked 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 



331 



arrangement is to prevent their being eaten by 
larvae, not only of other insects, but of those of 
their own family, for they are veritable cannibals. 
The larvae ( Fig. 1 13, (^) are as ugly as the adult is 
beautiful. They are active, spindle-shaped little 
fellows with crescent- 
shaped mandibles, 
which never seem to 
tire of piercing to 
death all insects they 
can capture ; but they 
are particularly de- 
structive to plant-lice 
(aphides), and for this 
reason are often called f-^ 
aphis lions. They 
hold their prey be- 
tween the tips of their '•'<"•• im- — ichneumoi 

^ I'OSITING AN EGG WITHI 

mandibles, and suck 
the juices through the 
long tubes formed by a groove along the under 
side of each mandible and the slender maxilla 
which fits into it. When this larva reaches its 
growth it rolls itself into a ball and spins a 
cocoon of snowy white, from which it comes 
forth through a circular lid (Fig, 113,/") a 
wondrously changed creature — the dainty lace- 
winged fly. 

Another group of our insect friends is the 
parasitic Hymenoptera, such as the ichneumon- 




N-FLY DE- 
N COCOON. 



(Slightly magnified.) 



322 AGRICULTURE. 

flies, Chalcis flies, and braconids. These generally 
lay their eggs in or on the body of the larva of 
other insects, but sometimes they deposit them 
in the adult, the pupa (Fig. 1 14), or even the Ggg. 
When the eggs hatch, the larvae feed upon the 
substance of the host, thus destroying it, to- 
gether with all of its posterity, which in a few 
years might have been countless. 

One genus of the ichneumon-flies which is 
often mistaken for an enemy of plants is the 
thalessa, a yellow or black (according to the 
species) insect, with a long, slender, though 
powerful, ovipositor, with which it pierces into 
the wood of a tree. It will be found upon ex- 
amination, however, that the tree is infested 
with borers ( Fig. 122), and that what the ichneu- 
mon really does is to deposit its eggs in the 
nest of the borer, where the larva, when it 
hatches, fixes itself to the body of the borer, liv- 
ing upon its juices and gradually killing it. 

The many species of Chalcis flies, as well as 
the ichneumon, are parasitic upon a great num- 
ber of different insects, one species feeding 
upon the chrysalis of the cabbage-butterfly.'-' 

(2) Exercise 14. — {a) As many kinds of these insects 
as can be obtained should be placed in the breeding-jars 
and watched through their development. 

{b) Experiment with the food of these insects in dif- 
ferent stages of their development to ascertain in what 
stage they are predaceous and wliat insects they will eat. 

* The larvae of Syrphus-flies do much good by destroying scale 
insects and aphides, in whose colonies they live. 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 323 

(c) It will be interesting and instructive to place the 
larva and the adult forms of the ladybug, and of the 
lace-winged fly in the breeding-jars, and supply them 
with portions of plants infested by aphides, and watch 
what takes place. 

(d) In which of these stages did your specimen of 
ladybug devour the plant-lice ? How ? 

{e) In which of these stages did your specimen of lace- 
winged fly devour the plant-lice ? How ? 

XI. Specific Examples of Injurious Insects. 

I. Plant-lice are among the most familiar and 
most annoying of the insects injurious to plants. 
The family includes many species, all of which 
are small, the largest measuring only one-fourth 
inch in length. Most of those we see are wing- 
less, but some of the common species have two 
pairs of transparent wings. Our most common 
species of plant-lice are green or black, but 
others are red, brown, or yellow. The beak is 
three-jointed. It is not coiled up like that of 
the butterfly, but is attached to the head by a 
hinge, and is bent up against the under side of 
the body when the insect is not feeding. They 
feed upon the buds, leaves, and tender growing 
stems or roots of plants, and in such immense 
numbers as to often do much damage. 

Exercise 15. — It will be easy to find colonies of these 
plant-lice upon crysanthemums, cherry, or plum sprouts, 
or even roadside weeds. 

{a) Watch them closely, taking care not to dis- 
turb them. What other insects do you see among 
theni ? Do you find two tiny tubes projecting from the 



324 AGRICULTURE. 

terminal segment of tlie abdomen of the plant-louse ? 
Is there a drop of honeydew on the tops of these tubes ? 
What do you find ants doing with this honeydew ? If 
no honeydew is present, observe the ants stroke these 
plant-lice with their antennae. Do they then obtain the 
honeydew (Fig. 115) ? This process is commonly spoken 
of as the "ants milking their cows." Bees and wasps 
also like this honeydew. 

Ants care for the plant-lice in many ways, protecting 
their eggs and carrying the lice to the roots, upon which 
they feed. 

(^) Do you find any enemies in the colony ? 

{c) Kerosene emulsion is, perhaps, the best remedy. 
Why? 

(d) Will the Paris green spray kill them ? Explain. 

2. T/ie Roses lug [Monosiegia rostri") is a soft- 
bodied larva, green above and yellowish below, 
which eats the surface of the rose leaves, leaving 
only the framework. When full grown the 
larva buries in the ground. The adult is a tiny 
black fly with dull-colored wings, and with the 
first and second pair of legs grayish. There are 
two broods a year (one in early summer and one 
in late summer), the second brood pupating in 
the ground over winter, and the adult emerg- 
ing in the spring. Either Paris green or kero- 
sene emulsion will form an effective remedy. 
Why? 

3. Tent-caterpillar. — There are several 
species of tent-caterpillars ; but only two, the 
apple tent-caterpillar i^Clisiocanipa americana), 
and the forest tent-caterpillar (^Clisiocampa 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 



325 



disstj'-ia) are common in the United States east 
of the Rockies. The adult form of the C. 
amci'icana is a rather small, rusty brown moth, 
with oblique, pale yellow lines across the four 
wings (Fig. 1 16). 

The eggs are laid in summer in a circular 




KIG. 115. ANTS MILKING PI.ANT-I.ICE. 

(After Figuir.) 

band about a twig. This band of eggs {Fig. 
116, c) is protected from the weather by a sticky 
substance with which the parent moth coats 
them over. The following spring, just before 
leaf buds open, these tiny caterpillars come 



32G 



AGRICULTURE. 




FIG. Il6. — AMKRICAN TENT-CATEK I'lL- 
l.AR (Clisiocampa americana).^ 



forth to feed upon 
the buds, and soon 
the colony, for 
they are social 
beings, spins a 
silken web, or 
" tent," on the 
fork of a branch 
(Fig, 1 16, a to b), 
to which the cater- 
pillars retire at 
night and in cold 
and stormy weath- 
er. They grow 
rapidly, and greed- 
ily d evo u r the 
leaves as they 
come out, doing 
much damage. 

When the cat- 
erpillars are grown 



ni worms on the outside of they are about two 

the tent, c — Egg-niass, with the gummy cover- 



a and i^— FuU-growr 



ing removed. (/—Cocoon, containing the chrys- incheS lonoj' and 
alis. Above all, the moth. , • 1 1 • 

(After Riley.) covered With hairv 

* Our Western species Clisiocampa fragilis) U ,- ,' c t 1 <=> c T^Vip>ir 

resembles the above so closely that the figure OriStieS. 1 ncy 
serves equally well for it. 111 • 1 

are black with a 
white stripe down the median line, and with 
short yellow lines and pale blue spots on each 
side (Fig. ii6, a and 8). When they have 
reached their growth they leave the tree, seek 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 



327 



shelter on the ground under boards, bark, etc., 
and spin a silken cocoon (Fig. ii6, a), from 
which, after a few weeks, the moth emerges. 

The apple and wild cherry are the trees most 
usually attacked by these caterpillars, but they 




FIG. 117. 



tALTIMORE ORIOLE ATTACKING THE NEST OF THE 
AMERICAN TENT-CATEK PILLAR. 



have been found upon the peach, rose, and other 
members of this family of plants, as well as upon 
forest and shade trees. 

Bacteria and parasitic ichneumon-flies, as well 
as many birds, such as cuckoos, blue jays, crows, 



328 



AGRICULTURE. 



and orioles (Fig. 1 1 7), serve as natural checks 
to these insects, but they are by no means 
sufficient to prevent them from doing great 
damao^e. 

Every farmer should take prompt measures 
to destroy them at their first appearance upon 

his trees. This may 
be done effectively 
by spraying the foli- 
age with arsenate of 
lead, or Paris green, 
or by collecting them 
in their tents early in 
the morning or late 
in the evening. This 
may be done by thrust- 
ing into the tent the 
end of a long pole, 
into which has been 
driven two or three 
nails, and turning the 
pole round and round 
FIG. 118.— FOREST TKNT-cocooNs SO as to twist the web 

IN APPLK LEAVES. , . r^^, 

about It. 1 he cater- 
pillars should then be burned or crushed. 

4. T/ie Forest Tent-caterpillar ( C. disstria) 
is very like the American tent-caterpillar in 
appearance and habits. The markings upon the 
wings of this moth are dark instead of light, while 
in the caterpillar (Fig. 119) the median line is 




ENEMIES OF PL-VNTS. 



329 



marked with a row of white spots instead of a 
continuous line of white, as in the avicj^icana. 
In the colonies or masses which they form 




FIG. 119. — FOREST rENT-CATERriLLAKS FEEDING Ul'OX ELM LEAVES. 

when not feedingf there is a more or less dis- 
tinct web underneath them, but it does not form 
a complete covering above them, as in the 
amcricana. They not only eat away consider- 



330 



AGRICULTURE. 



able portion of the leaf, but they cut it in two, 
so that the end falls to the ground ; in this way 
the damage is doubled (Fig. 119). To this is 
also added the injury done to the foliage by 
binding up the leaves (Fig. 118) for the attach- 
ment and the protection of the cocoon. 




FIG. 120. — CODLTNG-MOTH. 

a — Injured apple. — b — Place where egg is laid. 

e — I<arva. (f— Pupa. / — Cocoon g, y^Moth. 

h — Head of larva 

f After Riley.) 



They may be destroyed by spraying the foli- 
age, at the Jirst appearance of the caterpillar, 
with arsenate of lead or Paris oreen. Both 
the forest and the apple tent-caterpillars often 
drop to the ground, and they may be prevented 
from crawling back up the trunk by banding the 
base of the tree with a strip of cotton or of 
"tanglefoot" fly-paper. This should be closely 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 331 

applied to the trunk about a foot from the 
ground, allowing the caterpillars to collect below 
the band, when they may be removed and de- 
stroyed, or sprayed copiously, and, if need be, 
repeatedly, with kerosene emulsion. 

5. The Codling-nwtJi (Fig. 120). — Comstock 
says: "This is the best-known and probably 
the most important insect enemy of the fruit 
grower." The adult is a tiny gray moth (Fig. 
120,^). Its front wings are sometimes tinged 
with pink. These wings have a large brown 
spot near the edge, crossed by metallic, bronzy 
bands. 

The eggs are laid each in the blossom end of 
an apple, just as the petals are falling. In a few 
days the larva hatches, feeds a little upon the 
surface of the apple — for a few hours or a day — 
then eats its way into the center of the apple, 
where we find it as "a little white worm." 

The larvae may be destroyed before they do 
any damage by spraying the trees with Paris 
green or arsenate of lead, just as the blossoms 
fall, and before or at the time the larvae hatch. 
At this time the fruit stands with blossom end 
up, and the poison will reach the place where 
the larva hatches. It is necessary to repeat this 
spraying in a few days or a week, the time de- 
pending upon whether it is dry or rainy weather. 
A large percentage of the apples which drop pre- 
maturely will be found to contain these larvae. 



332 AGRICULTURE. 

The larva remains in the apple only a short time 
after it drops; then it crawls out (Fig. 120, e) 
and seeks some secluded place — as, under bark, 
boards, etc.; hence, if the apples are removed and 
burned, or fed to hogs at once, many of last year's 
larvae will be destroyed, and thus the number 
of adults left over for spring breeding greatly 
lessened. 

6. The Borers are another group of insect 
pests which, owing to their habits and life his- 
tory, must be combated in an altogether differ- 
ent manner. 

This group includes the many species of 
borers. The remedies for many of these borers 
are the same, but the time and methods of apply- 
ing them depend upon the habit of the particu- 
lar species in question. Each is a study in it- 
self, and one must know something of the habits 
and life history of each particular species which 
he would successfully combat. On account of 
limited space, but one example of borers can be 
given. 

(i) Example. — The Round-headed Apple- 
tree Borer {Saperda Candida). — The presence 
of these borers may be detected by the sickly 
appearance of the tree and by the sawdust from 
their gnawings, which is pushed out of their tiny 
canals (Fig. 122). It takes nearly three years 
for these insects to coijiplete their life-cycle. 

In June or July the eggs are laid singly at the 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 



333 



base of the trunk, under a loose scale of the 
bark or in a little incision made by the mandibles. 
In about two weeks the larva is hatched, and at 
once begins to gnaw into the sapwood and inner 
bark, where it remains for a year, making "disc- 
shaped mines," in the lower part of which it 




FIG. 121. — ROUND-HEADED APPLE-BORER (Saperda Candida, Vah.). 
(After Division of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture.) 

spends the winter. The following summer it 
again works in the sapwood, and in the third 
season " cuts a cylindrical passage upward into 
the solid wood " (Fig. 122). It afterward gnaws 
out toward the bark, sometimes going on through 
the tree.* " It changes to a pupa (g^ near the 
upper end of its burrow in May, and emerges as 
a beetle in June." 

(2) Preventives. — Nature furnishes many 



Comstock's Alanual for the Slndy of Insects, p. 573. 



334 



AGRICULTURE. 



helpers in keeping boring" insects in check- — 
such as woodpeckers, ichneumon-flies, Chalcis 
flies, etc. In combating all kinds of borers an 
ounce of prevention is, indeed, worth more than 
a pound of cure. Prompt removal of all dead 
or dying trees is a necessary measure. The 
most effective preventive is to wrap the base of 




FIG. 122. — Sci/ii-i/a landida. Fab. 

a— Puncture in which egg is laid, b — Same in section. ^— Hole from which 

beetle has emerged. _/— Same in section, g — Pupa in its cell. 

(After Riley.) 

the tree trunk for about a foot and a half with 
wire gauze netting, or, what is cheaper, wooden 
wrappers obtained from box and basket fac- 
tories. They should be pushed down into the 
ground so that the beetle cannot get under to 
lay its eggs, and the tops should be tightly filled 
in with cotton batting to keep them out. The 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 335 

wooden wrappers also protect the tree from sun- 
scald and from rabbits. 

A very effective remedy, which has been 
tested and recommended by Prof. J. M. Sted- 
man, State Entomologist for Missouri, is an 
alkali wash made as follows : " Dissolve as 
much common washing soda as possible in six 
gallons of water ; then dissolve one gallon of or- 
dinary soft soap in the above, and add one pint 
of crude carbolic acid and thoroughly mix ; 
slake a quantity of lime in four gallons of water, 
so that when it is added to the above the whole 
will make a thick whitewash ; add this to the 
above and mix thoroughly, and finally add one- 
half pound of Paris green or one-fourth pound 
of powdered white arsenic and mix it thoroughly 
in the above." 

This wash, of course, has no effect upon the 
larva when it is inside of the bark, but it 
prevents the insect from laying its eggs upon 
the bark, or if'the egg is already present it kills 
the larva before it enters the tree. As much 
loose bark as can be taken away without injur- 
ing the tree should be removed, and every crack 
and crevice filled with the wash by rubbing 
hard with the scrubbing-brush in applying it. 
The wash should be applied early in June and 
again early in July. 



336 AGRICULTURE. 

^.—INJURIOUS FUNGI. 

The enemies of plants are not restricted to 
animal forms, but many of them are low forms 
of plants. Parasitic fungi, or low forms of 
plants which do not have the power to live upon 
unorganized food as green plants do, feed upon 
the tissues of living or dead animals or plants, 
and often do a great amount of damage. The 
fungi, which feed upon living plants greatly 
concern the agriculturist. Millions of dollars 
are lost yearly by the damage caused by para- 
sitic fungi. 

The parts of the fungus are the mycelium 
(the vegetative threads which ramify the tissues 
of the host), and the minute spores, or repro- 
ductive organs, the function of which is similar 
to that of the seed of higher plants. 

I. Specific Examples. 

Space permits only the brief mention of a few 
of the numerous fungi, but it is hoped that this 
may be sufficient to give the student a slight 
idea of their development and the m_ethod of 
combating them. 

I. Brown RotiyMonilia fruetigcna) (Fig. 123). 
— This is the familiar rot of the plum, peach, 
and cherry, first appearing as a small dark spot 
on the nearly ripe fruit. The ripe spores are 
easily carried by the wind, and frequently 
this rot destroys the entire crop. The rot 
spreads fast if the weather is warm and moist. 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 



337 



Those fruits which touch each other are most 
easily affected ; hence, the importance of thinning 
the fruit. Another point to be remembered is 
the fact that the fruits infested by these fungi 




FIG. 123. — BROWN ROT (Moniliaf)uctigena). 

dry up and remain upon the tree, and thus carry 
the spores over to the next year. These mum- 
mified fruits (Fig. 123) should be destroyed or 
fed to hogs. Frequent spraying with the diluted 



338 



AGRICULTURE. 



Bordeaux ■"' mixture (see page 341 ) will be an ef- 
fective prevention if done in time. 

2. Black Rot {La'stadia bidiucllii) of the 
grape (Fig. 124) is a fungous grov^th which at- 
tacks nearly or 
quite grown grapes, 
beginning as a dark 
spot which spreads 
over the whole 
grape, making it a 
purplish brown 
color. The grape 
then shrivels, turns 
black, and is cov- 
ered with very mi- 
nute elevations. 

Just before the 
fruit ripens, or 
earlier if the 
weather is warm 
and moist, this fun- 
gous growth is apt 
to appear, and prompt and frequent spraying 
should be resorted to. Bordeaux mixture is 
recommended for earlier spraying ; but it 
stains the fruit, thus injuring its appearance, 
when it begins to ripen. The ammoniacal copper 




FIG. 124. — BLACK ROT 

{Lcesladia bidwcUii). 



* " Since the leaves of the peach and plum are sensitive to this 
spraying mixture, it should be used only in extreme cases." — 
Wilcox, 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 339 

carbonate solution should then be substituted 
for the Bordeaux mixture. Care must be taken 
to burn the mummified fruits (Fig. 124). 

3. The Bitter Rot of apples [G/ceospo7^iu7?z 
fructigemini). — This is sometimes called the 




YeHr-LooIv, 1S',I9. 
FIG. 125. — (iKAI'KS FROM VINEYARD AFFECTED WFIH BLACK ROT. 
Sprayed and iiiisprayed. 

ripe rot of apples, as it seldom affects the fruii 
until half or nearly grown, and often effects it 
even after it is stored.^'' It first appears as small 
brown spots which enlarge, and sometimes two 
or more unite, so that soon the whole fruit is 
rotted. The fruits may drop off, but often re- 

* Unless in cold storage. 



340 



AGRICULTURE. 



main upon the tree and dry up, thus protecting 
the spores to start an extensive crop the suc- 
ceeding year. 

Every rotten apple, whether on the ground 
or on the tree, should be destroyed, and all can- 
ker spots on the branches or trunk cut out. 
Spraying with the Bordeaux mixture should 
be begun the middle of July, and repeated 



j^W 


^^^^^^^^^^ 


^ 




^aj!5a5!si_*-— 


w 





FIG. 126. — AN APPLE ATTACKED BY BITTER-ROT FUNGUS. 
(After Alwood.) 

twice a month or oftener. Substitute for 
the Bordeaux mixture, as the apple reaches 
its growth, the ammoniacal copper carbonate 
solution. 

4. Apple Scab {^Fiisicladiuni dentriticum). 
— This common and very injurious fungus at- 
tacks both foliage and fruit. It is found on the 
leaves as "sooty" spots. The leaves become 
yellow and fall. It appears on the fruit as a 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 



341 



brownish scab, often distorting the shape. It 
does the most damage just at the time of blos- 
soming, and the forming apples drop off. It 
may be largely prevented by spraying with Bor- 



/^ 


k 






1 


/jiO^^ 


l2 




'^^' 




^B 




i;-0m 


T^^ 







FIG.I27. — APPLE SCAK. 
(After Lademan.) 

deaux mixture several times in the spring just 
before the blossoms open, and afterward at 
intervals of two weeks. 

Let students spray an apple-tree for Apple Scab and 
codling moth by combining Paris green (one-quarter 
pound to 50 gallons of water) and Bordeaux mixture.* 

II. Fungicides.! 

( i) The best spray for general use as a fungi- 
cide is, without doubt, the BordeaiLX mixture. 

FORMULA FOR LIQUID BORDEAUX. 

Copper sulphate 3 to 6 pounds 

Quicklime 3 to 6 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

*See Bulletin 114, Illinois Experiment Station. 

f For Mildew on roses, etc.. Flowers of Sulphur mixed with 
one-third of its volume of Slaked Lime dusted on the foliage 
is benefirial. 



342 AGRICULTURE. 

The amount of copper sulphate used depends 
upon the strength of the mixture desired, three 
pounds being sufficient for peach-trees in foliage, 
and six pounds being harmless to dormant trees. 
Dissolve the copper sulphate in an earthen jar 
or wooden pail by suspending it in a sack so 
that it will just touch the water. Hot or cold 
water may be used. Slake the lime, and after 
it is done slaking add water enough to make a 
thin paste ; strain this through a gunny-sack 
into a vessel containing twenty-five gallons of 
water, and stir thoroughly. Mix together the 
lime and copper sulphate solutions in equal 
parts. 

It is well to add a little of one of the arsenical 
sprays, since by so doing one may kill both 
insects and fungi at the same time. It is better 
to use the Bordeaux mixture when fresh. It 
should be applied in dry weather, if possible. 

Bordeaux solution containing free copper 
sulphate is injurious to foliage and blossoms."^ 
It should always be tested with potassium ferro- 
cyanide.f 

Directions for testing : 

[a) In a test tube or bottle make a Bordeaux solution 
with an excess of lime and add a few drops of potas- 
sium ferrocyanide. Note change. 



*See Bulletin 287, New York Experiment Station. 
\ Potassium ferrocyanide is very poisonous. Handle with 
care. Label "foisoii." 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 343 

[b) Prepare a Bordeaux solution with an excess of cop- 
per sulphate, and add a few drops of potassium ferro- 
cyanide. Note change. 

(r) Add potassium ferroc5^anide to lime-water See 
p. lo {d). Note change. How does the result compare 
with [a)} 

(a) Add potassium ferrocyanide to a solution of cop- 
per sulphate. Note change. How does the result com- 
pare with (/')? 

Potassium ferrocyanide and copper sulphate 
form a dark brown precipitate. If the Bor- 
deaux solution shows a brownish color when 
potassium ferrocyanide is added, what does it 
indicate ? What would you do with the Bor- 
deaux solution ? 

2. T/ie Annnoniacal Copper Carbonate Solu- 
tion.- — -When the fruit is almost ready for mar- 
ket it is advisable to use the ammoniacal copper 
carbonate solution, as the Bordeaux mixture 
stains the fruit and mars Its appearance. 

FORMULA 

Copper carbonate 5 ounces 

Strong ammonia 3 pints 

Water 50 gallons 

Add enough water to the copper carbonate to 
make a thin paste ; then pour into it the ammonia 
and mix thoroughly; then add the water. Use 
instead of the Bordeaux mixture whenever it is 
desired to avoid the stain made by the Bor- 
deaux. 



344 AGRICULTURE. 

C— REFERENCES. 

" Injurious Fruit Insects." Bulletin 23, Montana Agricultural 
E.\periment Station. 

" Diseases of Cultivated Plants." Bulletin 121, Ohio Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station. 

" The Chinch Bug." Bulletin 51, Missouri Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station. 

"Spraying Apple-trees, with Special Reference to Apple Scab 
Fungus." Bulletin 54, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 

" Forest Tent-caterpillar." Bulletins 64, 75, New Hampshire 
Agricultural Experiment Station. 

" Tent-caterpillar." Bulletin 38, New Hampshire Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

" The Army-worm." Bulletin 39, New Hampshire Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station. 

" Insecticides and Fungicides." Bulletin 75, Oregon Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station. 

" The Canker-worm." Bulletin 44, New Hampshire Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station, 

" Paris Green for the Codling-moth." Bulletin 126, California 
Agricultural Experiment Station. 

" Fruit Diseases, and How to Treat Them." Bulletin 66, 
West Vireinia Agricultural Experiment Station. 

" Common Diseases and Insects Injurious to Fruits." Bulletin 
170, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 

"The Common Crow." Bulletin 6, United States Department 
of Agriculture, Division of Entomology. 

" The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture." Bulletin 15, 
United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology. 

" Peach Twig Borer." Farmers' Bulletin So, United States 
Department of Agriculture. 

" The Bitter Rot of Apples." Bulletin 44, Bureau of Plant 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. 

" Fall Army-worm and Variegated Cutworm." Bulletin 29, 
United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Entom- 
ology. 

" Progressive Economic Entomology." Year-book, 1S99. 

" The Blue Jay and Its Food." Year-book, 1S96. 

" Danger of Importing Insect Pests." Year-book, 1S97. 

" The Shade-tree Insect Problem in the Eastern United 
States." Year-book, 1S95. 



ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 345 

"The Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape." Year-book, 
1895. 

" Four Common Birds of the Farm." Year-book, 1S95. 

" The Meadow-lark and Baltimore Oriole." Year-book, 1895. 

'•Birds as Weed Destroyers." Year-book, 1898. 

" Fungus Diseases of Forest Trees." Year-book, 1900. 

" How Birds Affect the Orchard." Year-book, igoo. 

'■ Useful Birds and Harmful Birds." Year-book. 1S97. 

"Audubon Societies in Relation to the Farmer." Year-book, 
1902. 

" Manual for the Study of Insects." Comstock. 2. 

" Our Insect Friends and Foes." Craigin. 3. 

" Fungi and Fungicides." Weed. 4. 

" Bird Life." Chapman, i. 

" Our Friends, the Birds." Parker. 5. 

" Economic Entomology." Smith. 6. 

" Insects Injurious to Fruits." Saunders. 6. 

" Syrphus-fiies." Bulletin No. 31, U. S. National Museum. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XIII. 

ORNAMENTATION OF SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS 

^.—SCHOOL GARDENING. 

I. School-grounds. 

1 . Trees. 

2. Shrubbery. 

II. Experimental Garden. 

1. Preparation. 

(i) Study on Soil and Seed. 
(2) Preparation of Ground. 

2. Plantings. 

3. Group Gardens. 

III. Window-garden. 

^.—LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. 

I. Geometrical Style. 

II. Natural Style. 

C— REFERENCES. 



347 



CHAPTER XIII. 

ORNAMENTATION OF SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 

^.—SCHOOL GARDENING. 

I. School-grounds. 

These present a difficult problem. A play- 
ground must and will be had by the children. 
Very often this is too small to spare a foot for 
ornamental purposes, but nooks and corners 
may be used. 

1. Trees. — If there is any possible way, let 
there be a few large shade-trees. It would ren- 
der the school-room more comfortable, as well 
as more inviting, to have a tree so placed as to 
shade the windows upon the south or west side. 
Surely young trees can be planted on the edge 
of the street along the school-ground, and prop- 
erly protected until a good root-system is estab- 
lished. 

2. Shrubbery. — Instead of a high board fence, 
clumps of shrubbery may be used. They can 
easily be arranged so as to form a screen, as 
well as to make a pretty background for the 
schoolhouse. 

One excursion to the woods will be sufficient 
to secure abundant material for the year. 
Many of the pupils will gladly bring a flowering 

34 'J 



r 










FIG. 129.— A COUNTRY SCHOOL-YARD— BARE AND UNATTRACTIVE. 




SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 351 

shrub from the home g-rounds if the teacher 
will only interest them in this work, and then 
use taste in arranging the material when it is 
brought. 

II. Experimental Garden. 

If the school-grounds are ample, a little ex- 
perimental garden laid out in the back yard will 
be well cared for by the children if enthusiasm 
has been rightly instilled and controlled by the 
teacher. 

If the grounds are not large enough to admit 
of this, tJie teacJicr is urged to secure a vacant 
lot for this experimental garden. No doubt it 
can often be obtained for a small rental, or, per- 
haps, for a share of the products. If agriculture 
is to be studied, and it ought to be in some part 
of the course of study in every school, then the 
experimental garden becomes a necessity. 

The school garden should have the hearty 
support of the children concerned ; without this 
it will be a failure. A child that has to be 
forced to take up this work would far better be 
excused — for the first year, at least. There will 
be time enough for him to repent when he sees 
his playmates with fine flowers and vegetables 
of their own. To gain the hearty support of 
the children requires only an enthusiastic 
teacher — one who believes in his work, and has 
a definite, organized course of procedure. 

I, Preparation, (i) Study on the Soil 



352 AGRICULTURE. 

AND THE Seed. — About a month or six weeks 
prior to the work in the open ground, prepara- 
tory lessons should be given on the soil and on 
seed germination. These should include: (^) A 
comparative study of the different types of soils 
(sand, clay, humus, and loam), as to their color, 
weight, porosity, size of particles, and power to 
absorb and retain heat. (d) A study of the 
seed and the conditions governing germination. 
Some of the principal points to be considered in 
these lessons are purity and vitality of seeds, 
the seed-coat, depth of planting, time of sprout- 
ing, and effect of light, air, moisture, and heat 
on germination (see Chapter IX.). 

Samples of all the different seeds to be 
planted in the garden should be carefully ex- 
amined and tested for purity and vitality, dis- 
carding all those that are impure or are slow to 
germinate. For early planting, seeds of such 
plants as the tomato, cabbage, and pansy should 
be started indoors. In every case the child 
should work out these results for himself by 
actual experiments or observations. If well 
done, this work will form an excellent basis for 
the work in the outdoor garden. 

(2) Preparation of Ground. — The soil for 
this garden should be thoroughly prepared by 
plowing and harrowing, independent of the 
children's work. A certain space of ground 
should be planned for and assigned to each 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 353 

child. As a i)iinii)iiLin this should be 4X 10 feet, 
with a path a foot and a half or two feet wide 
on each side. The measuring should be done 
by the children, but it will be necessary to 
measure very accurately, in order that each 
child may get his rightful share of the ground 
and that this drill may be practical. Care should 
be taken not to tramp the ground any more than 
is absolutely necessary. As the plats are laid 
off, they should be marked with a stake at each 
corner. The paths should be determined as 
soon as possible, and the passing over the 
grotinds restricted to these. All paths should 
be kept mulched ivith grass or garden dtibris. 

Each child should have full charge of his in- 
dividual garden throughout the term, and be 
responsible for the general condition of the 
garden and path. 

Great care must be exercised by the teacher, lest viaking the 
garden should become the sole aim instead of the develop- 
ment of the child. It must not be forgotten that the latter is 
the paramount purpose of all school work. Hence, the 
teacher should first require careful thought concerning 
the prospective garden; then the individual tastes of the 
children should be consulted in selecting and arranging 
their own plantings. 

Now, having decided how and where each 
variety is to be planted, the ground should be 
well pulverized and marked off by the children. 



354 



AGRICULTURE. 



If rows are used they should be from one to 
three feet apart, according to the character of 
the plantings. 

2. Plantings for Individual Gardens. — The 
first planting may consist of radishes, lettuce. 




FIG. 131. — FIFTH-GRADE CHILDREN PI.ANIING THEIR CSARDEN 

and onions. These may occupy two-thirds of 
the ground. The remaining portion should be 
used for growing flowers ; some rather low 
flowering plants are preferable, such as Cali- 
fornia poppies, dwarf nasturtiums, verbenas, 
phlox, and Ageratum. As the first planting of 
vegetables is removed, a few tomato-plants, 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 355 

cabbage-plants, potato hills, or some dwarf 
beans may be put in. 

The experimental garden makespossible many 
lessons in nature. From the plants here grown 
the child may gain an idea of the entire life his- 
tory of them : seeds, roots, stems, leaves, flowers, 




Fig. 132. — FOURTH-GRADE CHILDREN CARING FOR THE LAWN 
AROUND THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 

and fruit may be studied. Ample opportunity 
will be had for the study of "our friends, the 
birds," and of our insect friends and foes. 

The children should compare their gardens 
with those of their neicrhbors, and be led to see 
their mistakes, and, if possible, the reason for 
them, so they may obtain better results next 
time. Thus, while training the powers of ob- 
servation and comparison (and deductive reason- 
ing in the case of older students), the children 



356 AGRICULTURE. 

will be also learning practical lessons in growing 
plants to supply them with food or to adorn 
their homes, thereby elevating their tastes and 
enriching their lives. 

3. Group Gardens. — The local conditions in 
the school will determine whether individual 
gardens or group gardens are the more practi- 
cable. If the children can have individual 
gardens at home '''' then the group garden is the 
more valuable for the school, since most 
phases of the work can be better demonstrated 
by having the children work together. 

If the preparatory work (see i. Preparation. 
pp. 353, 354), has been carefully done with the 
children in the class-room, and the plans dis- 
cussed concerning what, how and where to 
plant, the children will be eager to carry their 
plans into effect in the group garden. 

CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF GROUP GARDENS. 

{a^ Primary Gardens. — Late in the fall each 
of the lower grades of the Practice School 
planted one kind of bulbs. The first grade 
chose the tulip ; the second grade, the poet's 
narcissus ; the third grade, the crocus ; and the 
fourth grade, the daffodil. In early spring they 

* There should be frequent "experience meetings" with the 
children concerning their home gardens. 

If it can be arranged so that the class and teacher, or at least 
the teacher, can visit some of the home gardens, it will add much 
to the interest of the work. 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 357 

removed a part of the covering and watched 
with deHcrht the orrowth and blossominof of their 
bulbs. As soon as the ground was ready in the 
spring they planted pansies, sweet-peas, and 
early vegetables, such as onions, radishes and 
lettuce. As these early plants matured they 
replaced them with later-growing varieties, thus 
obtaining a succession of crops and learning the 
importance of utilizing space. 

(d) FiftJi Grade Gaj'den. — The fifth grade 
children had a space 17.^ x 70 feet for their 
group garden. In it they planted rhubarb 
plants, strawberry plants, and raspberry rooted- 
tips. Many kinds of nuts were also planted. 
These they had stratified in the early winter. 
The opening of the box of stratified nuts was 
like the opening of a Christmas box, the children 
were so eager to see the sprouts of the different 
nuts. After planting them in the garden they 
.anxiously watched for the seedlings to come up. 
Apple grafts were also put out, each child's 
trees being kept separate. Cabbage plants and 
tomato plants which were grown by the children 
indoors were set out. Some tomato plants 
were trained to stakes, some supported on a 
frame, and others left prostrate on the ground, 
thus affording an opportunity for comparing the 
relative values of these methods. Potatoes, 
peas, sweet-corn and pop-corn were also given 
space. 



358 



AGRICULTURE. 








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mBI 




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1 ^ 

I-' 


' ifW,„»,.,f;,.\ 



FIG. 134. — SCHOOL GARDENING — AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS. 

A portion of the ground was reserved for a 
flower garden. In this they practiced some of 
the elementary principles of landscape-garden- 
ing. Plants were arranged for irregular masses. 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 359 

The taller-growing plants, as cosmos, golden- 
glow, and dahlias, were placed in the back- 
ground ; in the middle ground, perennial phlox, 
nasturtiums, and cannas ; and in the foreground, 
California poppies and sweet alyssum were 
planted. Throughout the entire scheme con- 
sideration was given to the massing of colors 
that would harmonize. Much of the material 
for this work was obtained from the General 
School Garden of the Normal School. 

III. The Window-garden. 

Window-boxes of growing plants will add to 
the attractiveness of the school-room. The 
difficulty lies in the danger of freezing the plants 
in winter nights ; but even if this cannot be pre- 
vented, there are three months in the spring 
and two or three in autumn when the plants 
may be had, and much can be done in inter- 
esting the pupils in this time. 

The window-box should be made of inch lum- 
ber, about seven inches deep and the width and 
the length of the window-sill. A strip of oil- 
cloth should be put upon the window-sill, and 
the box supported by blocks or other means, so 
that the air may pass freely beneath it, thus 
preventing the decay of the window-sill or fac- 
ing. It is important that the soil be well pre- 
pared by thoroughly mixing decayed leaf-mould, 
garden soil, and sand. 



360 



AGRICULTURE. 



The plants must be studied carefull)' to find 
out which love the sunshine and which the 
shade, and which the partial shade, or, in other 
words, which can be grown in the south and 




■IC. 135. — ROMAN' HYACIX Ills. 



which in a north window, and which in an east 
window. Try some of the same kinds in each 
window and record your results. Try ferns of 
various kinds, and begonias, umbrella-plants, 
and Maderia-vines in the north window ; prim- 
roses, cyclamen, and bulbs in an east window. 
If they can be kept from freezing through 



SCHOOL ANIJ HOME GROUNDS. 



;5f)l 



th(:: winter, nothing' will prove more satisfactory 
than a box of hulbs/' Crocuses, hyacinths (Fig. 
135), freesias, and narcissus will require little 
attention and give 
good results. The 
Chinese sacred lily 
(Fig. 136) is a large 
and beautiful nar- 
cissus, a large bulb 
of which, if simply 
placed upon sand 
and pebbles in a 
deep dish of water, 
will bloom in a few 
weeks, and con- 
tinue to bloom for 
some time. 




I-'IG. 136. — CUINKSE SACRED MI.V. 
IIollv fern in front. 



yy.— LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. 

Landscape-gardening is an art, just as truly 
as the painting of pictures and the modeling of 
sculpture; and where means will permit, it is 
just as essential to have an artist — one whose 
artistic tastes and ability to interpret Nature 



* Hulbs for winter forcing may be put into pots of good loose 
soil early in October, and stored in the cellar or in the ground 
with a good cover of straw, soil, and compost, and allowed to 
remain until about six weeks before the blossoms are desired. 
Bring them, a few at a time, into partial light and later into full 
light, and you may have a succession of blooms for weeks. 



362 AGRICULTURE. 

give him the right to the title of " Landscape- 
gardener " — to design the grounds, choosing a 
site for and suggesting the form of the house, 
laying out the roads and walks, and planning 
the planting of trees, shrubs, and flowers, so as 
to make one harmonious picture, as it is to have 
an architect to design the buildings and plan 
the rooms for the convenience and comfort of 
the occupants. 

Few of us can afford the services of landscape- 
gardeners, and fewer still are ourselves real art- 
ists. What then ? Shall our homes be simply 
shelters from the winter's wind and summer's 
sun? Mere houses, where we eat and sleep and 
exist ? Or shall they be, so far as it lies in our 
power to make them, abiding-places of comfort 
and joy and beauty ; places where the eye of the 
weary mother, as she glances up from her work, 
may meet the restful view of shrub and tree and 
sky, all blended into one delightful picture ; 
where the passer-by may receive refreshing 
glimpses of cooling shade and vistas of beauty 
half-hidden by the trees or clumps of shrubbery, 
or catch sight of the gay colors of summer flow- 
ers or glorious tints of autumn leaves — dwelling- 
places which elevate and enrich our lives ? If 
this latter condition is to be obtained, then the 
finished landscape must first exist in the mind — 
i.e., be seen in the imagination of the designer, 
just as the finished picture must be seen by the 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 363 

painter before he touches his brush to the 
canvas. 

The Design. — In the design the landscape- 
garden must have unity — some one dominating 
purpose throughout the whole, though this 
purpose need not be manifest to the observer. 

The Grounds must be seen from various 
standpoints; they must be considered as viewed 
both from within and without — from the beauty 
of their winter form and outline as well as of 
their summer verdure. 

In the site of the house and in the grouping 
of accessory buildings convenience and comfort 
must be first regarded, but not alone ; for often 
a beautiful and delightful location might have 
been selected yN\\\Q\\. would have been just as con- 
venient and healthful as the dull or matter-of- 
fact one which was selected, and which no 
amount of time and money could ever make the 
equal of the other. 

Hence, it is of the utmost importance that a 
careful study of the natitral resonrccs should be 
made. There is no spot, whether among moun- 
tains or at the seashore or on the rolling prai- 
ries, which does not have its own original beauty. 
There will always be something in the contour 
of the land, in the plant growth, or in the gen- 
eral outlook of the grounds, that will be worthy 
of serious consideration. There may be massive 
trees that are impressive by their size and age 



364 AGRICULTURE. 

which man by one foolish act could destroy, 
thus undoing what it has taken Nature years to 
develop. " A tree is a precious inheritance from 
the past, and should be transmitted to posterity 
with as keen a sense of its*.artistic value as 
though it were a famous picture or statue." * 

The plan must be specific, and it would be 
well to make it on paper with pen and ink — 
planning not so much for the present appear- 
ance as for the finished permanent picture ; no 
tree, vine, or shrub of a permanent character 
should ever be planted without this in mind. 

Styles of Landscape-gar denmg. — In making 
the design there are two styles from which to 
choose; only the skilled artist can combine the 
two.- 

I. Geometrical Style. 

In this method of landscape-gardening the 
grounds are laid out in squares, circles, or other 
geometrical designs (Fig. 137). The trees are 
planted in straight rows, the shrubs trained to 
regular patterns, and the walks and drives form 
definite angles. 

This style may be followed with pleasing 
effect along public boulevards, around large 
buildings (Fig. 137) with steeples and spires, and 
particularly where the building is a large one 
upon a small area. It heightens the outline of 



* M. G. Van Rensselaer's Art Out-of-Doors. 





FIG. 137. — GEOMETRICAL DESIGNS. 



365 



366 AGRICULTURE. 

the building and emphasizes its importance. 
Many other places might be mentioned where 
the formal style of gardening would be effective 
and desirable. But over large estates, in rural 
places and suburban homes, where the char- 
acter of the surrounding landscape retains much 
of its natural beauty, a formal system would be 
entirely out of place. 

II. Natural Style. 

This is best liked by Americans for country 
homes and schools, and is certainly the one best 
adapted to them. Nature furnishes ample 
material and many suggestions for the arrange- 
ment of it. He who succeeds in preserving the 
natural charms of a place, its spirit and senti- 
ment, though he does not attain to the highest 
perfection, is far in advance of the one whose 
first attempt is to obliterate everything natural in 
order that he may substitute some stilted and 
artificial plan. 

Though the landscape-artist has given due 
respect to the natural surroundings, that is not 
all there is for him to do. It is only a right 
beofinninof. He has now the artificial features — 
walks, drives, fences, etc. — to blend and harmon- 
ize in his landscape. These should be as few 
as convenience will permit. " They should 
neither be so straight as to lack beauty, nor so 
meandering as to lack good sense." * There 

* M. G. Van Rensselaer's Art Out of Doors. 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 367 

should be a legitimate reason for a curve in a 
drive. Sometimes there will exist naturally a 
small hill, a clump of bushes, or a tree that will 
afford a sufficient reason for turning aside. 
Otherwise one can make the curve sccru natural 
by planting shrubs or a tree. Whatever be the 
device, it should be something permanent and 
real; something that could not be easily de- 
stroyed or removed. A flower bed would not 
be a real obstruction ; it would offer no resist- 
ance to passing wheels. Not only would it 
be unsuitable on account of its trivial, transi- 
tory nature, but upon grounds large enough 
to require a road, a flower bed would be en- 
tirely out of place in the foreground. The same 
principle holds true in the construction of paths 
as in the construction of drives. Paths and 
drives are for utility, not for beauty; then with 
that aim they should be made. 

A still more difficult problem than that of 
walks and drives must be met, and that is what 
to plant and how to plant. This question ought 
to be studied, for there are few places but what 
could be improved by the judicious use of orna- 
mental plants. Mrs. Van Rensselaer says: 
" Two trees and six shrubs, a scrap of lawn, and 
a dozen plants may form either a beautiful little 
picture or a huddled disarray " of forms and 
colors. Too often is found the "huddled dis- 
array" instead of the beautiful picture. 



368 AGRICULTURE. 

The aim in placing the plantings should be 
to so arrange them as to allow an uninterrupted 
sweep to the line of vision wherever somQ pleas- 
ing landscape lies beyond, and to hide from view 
any buildings or objectionable objects. 

The sky-line should neither be too much 
broken nor too monotonous — perhaps on one 
side rising high above a mass of trees, with pos- 
sibly a spire of poplar, while on the other side 
it sinks to the surface of meadow or lake. 

Lawns form the basis of natural grounds for 
home or school. The center of the erounds in 
front of the house should generally be devoted 
to an open, unencumbered, well-kept lawn — a 
beautiful foundation for any grounds. " These 
lawns may be kept clipped, or the grass may be 
allowed to grow at its own sweet will ; but 
clipped lawns have a distinct suggestion of arti- 
ficiality, and the clipping should be confined to 
the vicinity of buildings or other positions 
where smooth surfaces and straight lines are 
already in evidence (Fig. 137). The unmowed 
lawn is suitable for larger pieces and for more 
emphatically natural surroundings " * (Fig. 

138). 

The plantings should be upon the boundaries, 
near the building, and in the background. 
" One would not want the furniture in the par- 
lor to take up three-fourths of the room ; much 

*Waugh's Landscape Gardening. 



370 AGRICULTURE. 

less would one want the green carpet of the lawn 
nearly covered with such furniture as trees and 
flower beds." * And one might emphatically add 
much less such monstrosities as trellises, pattern 
beds, rockeries, camp-kettles, vases, paint-buck- 
ets, and sewer-tiles. A summer-house, too, is 
out of taste upon the front lawn. These would 
mar the harmony of the whole surroundings. 

The mateinals for plantings — trees, vines, 
shrubs, and flowers— -are countless in number 
and of infinite variety. In the selection and 
grouping of these, harmony of color, form, and 
texture must not be forgotten. Yet the ele- 
ment of variety must enter in, or the picture 
will grow monotonous, however beautiful it 
may be. 

Trees. — The most valuable plantings from 
the standpoint of beauty and utility are the 
shade-trees. Their artistic value is embodied 
in the three qualities — form, texture, and color. 

The form of a tree is determined by its out- 
line as described against the sky or other trees. 
It may be eliptical, oval, pear-shaped, or of vari- 
ous other outlines. Structure is another im- 
portant factor in determining the form of a 
tree. This relates to the manner of branching, 
which may vary all the way from the drooping 
habit of the "weeping" willow to the as- 
piring branches of the poplar. Thus may be 

* Waugh's Landscape Gardt'ning. 



372 AGRICULTURE. 

seen the inharmonious effect in massing to- 
gether trees of these two extremes — as, the 
willow and the poplar. 

The texture of a tree is determined largely by 
the form and the density of its foliage (Fig. 139). 
By comparing the leaves of the arbor-vitae and 
those of the pine, the great trembling leaves of 
the Cottonwood with those of the weeping wil- 
low, the catalpa and cedar, the extreme differ- 
ence will be at once apparent. 

The seasons bring a succession of charming 
changes to trees. Spring brings only hints of 
green ; summer brings the dense shadows ; 
autumn brink's the grlorious colors ; but it is 
left for winter, with its dull gray sky, to bring 
out the true character or the individuality of 
the tree — its outline, manner of branching, and 
the color of its bark. 

In summer a tree " is shut in of its own 
leaves and shadow ; but when winter, with icy 
sword-blade, hacks away the last tatter of sum- 
mer finery, and leaves the tree to stand naked 
as an Indian warrior, then does it proclaim 
itself."* 

In the natural style of gardening, trees should 
stand in irregular groups, or as individuals 
standing alone, as if singled out on account of 
unusual beauty of form, color, or structure (Figs. 
140, 141). 

*W. A. Quayle's In GocTs Out-of-Doors. 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 373 

The American beech makes a fine specimen 
tree in rich soil. " In autumn there is a harvest 
sunUght on the beech leaves very fair to see, but, 
after all, the beech trunk is the tree's treasure." 

The elm, ash, catalpa, chestnut, alder, mul- 
berry, walnut, tulip-trees, maples, and oaks by 
the score surely give ample material for choice 
of trees to be used in groups or singly. 

As street trees, none can excel the American 
elm. "The elm-tree is always bewitching. In 
summer, when you can tell this tree as far as 
you can catch the contour across the fields by 
the grace of its pose and its rhythmic swaying 
of branches, as keeping time to music we do not 
hear; ... . in winter the tree has its winter array. 
Flung on the snow or seen against the blue sky 
or gray, it is as graceful as any tree that spreads 
under the sky." ^' 

The American sycamore, with its striking 
color and texture of foliage, is one of our first 
trees. It is grown on the capitol grounds at 
Washinorton. 

The sugar-maple is also an excellent street 
tree ; in fact, it is beautiful in many places, 
especially so in its autumn tints. 

The linden may also be used to good advan- 
tage as a street tree. 

" The general effect of an evergreen forest is 
that of somberness." In the North the use of 



* W. A. Quayle's In God's Out-of-Doors, p. 52. 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 375 

a few evergreen trees adds a pleasing variety, 
especially in winter. 

Shrubs may be used for a greater number 
and variety of purposes than any other kind of 
plants. When properly massed, they form ex- 
cellent screens to hide unsightly buildings or 
shut out some view which is less pleasing than 
another. These masses of shrubbery do double 
duty, for they not only act as a screen (Fig. 144), 
but may, with the addition of a few trees, form 
an excellent background for the whole picture. 

As has been already suggested, groups of 
sturdy-growing shrubs may be used in the curves 
of walks and drives as substitutes for a more 
natural obstacle to necessitate the turning aside. 
These may give new charm to the landscape by 
concealing some beautiful vista until the curve 
has been passed, thus adding the elements of 
surprise and discovery to the delight of the 
beholder. 

Masses of shrubbery may form little secluded 
nooks or a quiet corner for a rustic seat, where 
one may steal away with a book, or simply rest 
in the cool and inviting retreat (Fig. 142), un- 
consciously feasting the eye upon the beauty of 
a far-away hill, a waving meadow, or, it may be, 
upon an old-fashioned flower garden at one's 
feet. 

With the help of vines, irregular groups of 
low-growing shrubs along the wall or within the 




376 



sc;ii()()i. AND iioMK (;k(ji;nu.s. 






iin^U'.s s(;rv(t to unit(t llic hiiildings with the 
grounds, imd :idd to tin; liarinony between them. 
To take the |>hic<; of h)W-^rowIn^ shrubs 
alon<^ the walls and in the angles of north(;rn 
exposures, nothinj^ is more beautiful than ferns 




IK.KNS AN'I) nil, OX. 



with their feathery fronds (I'ig. 143), which can 
Ix; us(;d so effectively in house decorations. 

When it ])ecomes necessary to have a fence 
or a hcd^e there are many shrubs adapted for 
this purpose — as. roses, barberries, japonicas, 
bush honeysuckles, privets, arbor-vita^s, elder 
bush('s, sumachs, and a dozen others. If several 
kinds of these shrubs are allowed to form a con- 
tinuous yet irregular band, Ixtcoming broader 




fc :2 cfl 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 379 

in one place and higher in another, and in 
the background merging into a clump of tall 
shrubs or small trees, the effect will be much 
more natural than the closely sheared, stiff 
hedge. 

Where a number of varieties, species, or 
genera of varying habits are brought together 
in a group of shrubbery, the effect produced by 
the shades of differences in form and color and 
texture is usually more pleasing than that of a 
group formed from any one kind alone. 

For screens and masks, tall-growing, graceful 
shrubs should be used for the background or the 
center of the mass, and the outlines should 
gradually lose themselves in the lower plantings 
and green sward (Fig. 144). The plantings must 
be dense enough to conceal the view and to 
hide all trunks. Neither trees nor shrubs should 
expose long, bare trunks, making them look as 
though they were upon stilts. For this reason it 
is better to plant thickly, and cut out some 
shrubs when they need thinning. 

In massing shrubbery, again the gardner needs 
to know his plants. He should know those that 
first put forth their leaves in spring, the time of 
blooming, and the character of flowers and fruit. 
In general, mass those shrubs with the darker, 
restful colors in the background and those of 
lighter shades in the foreground. Those forms 
that blossom successively should be selected, for 



380 AGRICULTURE. 

it is in this constant chano-e that we have one of 
the chief charms of the garden. 

As to material, the common native shrubs are 
really the best. Dogwoods (Fig, 145), elders, 
crab-apples, Judas-trees, sumachs, buckberries^ 
snowberries, wild roses, greenbriers, honey- 
suckles, currants, spice-bushes, and button- 
bushes — all are beautiful, each in its season. 

Besides these native plants, there are scores 
of beautiful and inexpensive ones to be had — as, 
the lilac, mock-orange, barberry, japonica, snow- 
ball, spirea, deutzia, hydrangea, weigelia, and 
many beautiful varieties of roses. 

There are multitudes of hardy climbers and 
annuals that may be used over porches, arbors, 
and against the bare masonry of buildings. 
For example, the climbing rose, honeysuckle, 
wistaria, Virginia creeper, clematis, trumpet- 
vine, wild grape, and hop-vine. Such annuals 
as cypress, Madeira, cinnamon-vine, wild cu- 
cumber, morning-glory, and moon-vine may 
often be used to advantage. 

Not all climbers will look well together, nor 
be suited for all places. Each has a special 
charm and beauty of its own, determined by its 
habit of growth, and the character of its flowers 
and foliage. Hardy climbers are more effective 
in uniting the lawn and walls of the house than 
annuals, which are present for a season and then 
gone, leaving not only the junction of the soil 




FIG. 145. — DOGWOOD IN FLOWER. 



381 



382 AGRICULTURE. 

and walls bare^ but the work to be done over 
again the next year. 

Flowers. — While lawn, trees, and shrubs are 
the main features of our plantings, the flowers 
must not be forgotten. True, many flowers will 
be had from month to month from the shrubs, 
if they have been rightly chosen. But some 
flowers must be grown, not so much for the sake 
of the picture "as for their own sweet sake." 

First, let flowers of the wild-wood be planted. 
Let violets of all kinds, sweet-williams, blue- 
bells, anemones, spring beauties, or dog's-tooth 
violets peep out from shady recesses among the 
grass and shrubbery. 

The old-fashioned flowers, such as phlox, 
poppy, marigold, pink, petunia, verbena, and 
portulacca, must not be forgotten. These are 
appropriate for the flower garden proper, but 
should not be scattered over the lawn to dis- 
figure it. 

"I have in mind a garden old, 

Close to a little-known highway, 

Where aster, pink, and marigold 
Keep their long summer holiday. 

'Mid dreams and visions manifold 

I have in mind a garden old. 

" The fragrance of old-fashioned flowers. 
Where hollyhocks and daisies blow. 
Floats on the wings of summer showers 

Across the fields of long ago. 
Lo! from the sweet, rose-ripened bowers. 
The fragrance of old-fashioned flowers." 

— Frank Walcott Hutt. 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 



383 



Asters, chrysanthemums, pansies (Fig. 146), 
nasturtiums, and California poppies afford flow- 
ers for cuttino, but do not o^row them in beds 
outside of the tiower garden. Rather let them 
lill irregular nooks at the edge of the shrubbery, 




FIG. 146. PANSIES. 

and shrub and tiower will each enhance the 
beauty of the other (Fig. 144). 

Bulbs may be used in much the same manner 
as other flowers, and the season of blossoms be 
greatly advanced. The flowers from many 
bulbs are of surpassing beauty — as, the tulip, 
jonquil, and the lily-of-the-valley. Two others 
that are most pleasing when dotted here and 
there over the lawn are those cheery little 
harbingers of spring, the crocus and the un- 



384 



AGRICULTURE. 



assuming- little snowdrop, the most welcome 
of all. 

Temporary Screens. — If screens are needed 
for a season, what could be more beautiful than 




-SHALL THE CHILDREN PLyCK >XOWERS OR RATTLE 
TIN CANS IN THE BACK YARD? 



the tall sunflowers flanked by bashful golden- 
rods, with their torches of shining gold? If 
anything could be more beautiful, it is these 
same plants, now robed in duller hue, casting 



386 



AGRICULTURE. 



their outlines against the winter sky, and nod- 
ding a welcome to the birds who come to par- 
take of their bounties — or blossoming again, 
this time in snowy whiteness. 

Hollyhocks, castor-beans, cosmos, dahlias, 
chrysanthemums, and asters also make effective 




FIG. 149. — A BOUQUET OF SWEET PEAS. 

back-yard screens (Fig. 147), as do also sweet 
peas, morning-glories, moon-vines, wild cu- 
cumbers, and Madeira-vines, if furnished with 
a support. Here, as in other plantings, one, by 
rightly choosing from among the myriads of 
tall-growing plants or vines, may have an abun- 
dance of flowers throughout the season. Among 
annual climbers, sweet peas should be given the 
preference, since they furnish an abundance of 
fragrant flowers (Fig. 149) for decorating the 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 387 

rooms and table from June to October, if the 
flowers are picked regularly and the seed pods 
not allowed to form. The vines should be 
given a support as soon as the tendrils appear. 
Wire netting makes a good and durable sup- 
port for sweet peas. 

Water. — If the possibilities of a place include 
water in the form of rivulet, stream, or pond, 
the owner is indeed fortunate. Running water 
enlivens a landscape ; still water renders it 
peaceful and quieting. 

Along the wooded banks of the brook one 
expects to find " tangles of vines and branches 
and brakes." 

The pond or small lake, itself a thing of 
beauty, offers unusual opportunities for the skill 
of the gardener. Ash and sycamore and willow 
and alder are looked for along its banks, and 
it is surely a disappointment if none of them 
are mirrored in its silvery surface ; for the 
reflections in the water (Fig. 150) are the best 
part of the picture.* 

A pond may simply look like a "cup set in 
the orround," or form the most beautiful and es- 
sential part of the picture. A fringe of willows 
may overhang its banks here and there. At 
other points the grass and rushes should quench 

* Before leaving the subject, the student should be required 
to draw an original design for a geometrical style and one for the 
natural style of landscape-gardening. These plans should be 
carefully worked out in ink on good paper and discussed in class. 




388 



SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 389 

their thirst in the water's brink, while " further 
along the sedges and cattails may jut far out 
into the still water," upon the surface of which 
quietly rests the lily pads (Fig. 150). 

C— REFERENCES. 

" Plants as a Factor in Home Adornment." Year-book, United 
States Department of Agriculture, 1902. 

Cornell Nature-Study Quarterly^ No. 2. 

Part II., Fifteenth Annual Report, Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Kingston, Rhode Island. 

" Landscape Gardening." W. A. Waugh. igo2. 4. 

"Art Out-of-Doors. ' Mrs. Van Rensselaer. Charles Scrib- 
ner's Sons, N. Y. 1900. 

" How to Plant the Home Grounds." S. Parsons, Jr. Double- 
day & McClure Co., N. Y. 1S99. 

" In God's Out-of-Doors." Quayle. Jennings & Pye, Cincin- 
nati. 



OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XIV. 

FARM ANIMALS. 

E. A. TROWBRIDGE, 

Animal Husbandry, Unhiersity of Missouri. 

y^.— GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

I. Early History. 
II. Improvement. 

III. Heredity. 

IV. Variation. 

1. Atavism. 

2. Ordinary Variation. 

3. Extraordinary Variation. 

V. Selection. 

1. Natural Selection. 

2. Artificial Selection. 

VI. Functions of Animals Under Natural 

Conditions. 
VII. Changes Wrought by Man. 
VIII. Relation of Form and Function. 

^.—HORSES. 
I. Light Horses. 

1 . Type. 

2. Breeds. 

II. Coach-Horses. 

1. Type. 

2. Breeds. 

III. Draft-Horses. 

1 . lype. 

2. Breeds. 

C— CATTLE. 
I. Beef-Cattle. 

1 . Type. 

2. Breeds. 



391 



392 AGRICULTURE. 

II. Dairy-Cattle. 

1. Type. 

2 . Breeds. 

III. Dual- Purpose Cattle. 

1 . Type. 

2. Breeds. 

^— SHEEP. 
I. Mutton Form. 
II. Wool Form. 

(a) Fine Wool Sheep. 

1. Type. 

2. Breeds. 

(b) Medium Wooled Sheep. 

1 . Type. 

2. Breeds. 

A— SWINE. 
I. Lard Hogs. 

1 . Type. 

2. Breeds. 

II. Bacon Hogs. 

1. Type. 

2. Breeds. 

A— POULTRY. 

I. Laying Fowls. 

1. Type. 

2. Breeds. 

II. Meat Fowls. 

1 . Type. 

2 . Breeds. 

III. General- Purpose Fowls. 

1 . Type. 

2. Breeds. 

G^.— REFERENCES. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

FARM ANIMALS. 

E. A. TROWBRIDGE. 
Animal Husbandry, University of Missouri. 

I. Early History. 

The early history of domestic animals is as 
much in obscurity as that of the human race. 
Biblical references to some classes lead us to 
believe that they were known at a very early 
date. The findings of recent investigators 
tend to prove the existence of prehistoric ani- 
mals closely akin to some of our present 
domestic animals, particularly the horse. These 
prehistoric horses were very small and different 
from the horse of to-day in having two or more 
toes instead of the hoof, and their teeth were 
much less developed. Their color was probably 
more or less striped, resembling the zebra. 

Just when our domestic animals were brought 
into close relation with mankind is uncertain, 
but it is a certainty that it was at a very early 
date. They were first used for food and their 
hide for clothing. Later, the horse and ox 
were used as beasts of burden, and the horse 
was of great aid in warfare. 

393 



394 AGRICULTURE. 

II. Improvement. 

As time went on people became more civi- 
lized. Their habits, customs, ambitions and 
demands chanored. With this change in the 
people themselves many changes in domestic 
animals followed, as a natural consequence. It 
was a g-eneral changre in the direction of im- 
provement, although this was not always the 
case. 

There are three natural laws which are g-reat 
factors in affecting animal form and character 
in its reproduction, and make change possible. 
They are 

1. Heredity. 

2. Variation. 

3. Selection. 

III. Heredity. 

Ribot defines heredity as " that biological law 
by which all living beings tend to repeat them- 
selves in their descendants." This is the law 
which makes possible the resemblance between 
a parent and offspring, and is well expressed in 
the common saying that " like produces like." 
It is this principle upon which we depend 
for the transmission of milk-producing quali- 
ties in dairy cattle, speed in race-horses, etc., 
and by which we are able to maintain a 
standard of breed, characteristics or type in 
animals. 



FARM ANIxMALS. 395 

IV. Variation 

may be defined as the tendency in animals to 
produce characters in the offspring which differ 
from those of the parents. This law has given 
rise to the common expression that " like does 
not always produce like." At first sight these 
two principles would appear antagonistic ; but 
upon further study their difference may be 
understood. 

As the result of reproduction of animals of a 
certain breed, we expect offspring which re- 
semble the parents in general breed characters. 
For example, it is natural to expect an Abcj-dcen 
Angus cow to be the mother of a hornless calf, 
black in color and of meat-producing confor- 
mation ; and we will not expect her to be the 
mother of a fawn-colored calf with horns and 
capable of milk production at maturity rather 
than beef production. Thus, within limits, 
" like produces like." On the other hand, we 
would not expect this calf to be exactly like its 
mother in every respect, for who has ever seen 
two animals or two people exactly alike ? The 
calf might differ from its mother in size, spring 
of ribs, thickness of loin, length of legs, depth 
of body and various other ways. Thus, we see 
that like does not always produce like. Should 
the calf differ from its mother in these minor 
details, this variation would be called gradual or 
ordinary variation. But should it possess some 



396 AGRICULTURE. 

of the characteristics mentioned as unexpected 
the difference would be called spontaneous or 
extraordinary variation, and might result from 
many different causes. 

Animals that have been bred for a long time 
with a certain type in view are more likely to 
produce animals of that type than are those 
animals that have come to this desired type by 
differing greatly from their parents. Thus, one 
of the values of pure-bred animals is their 
ability to reproduce themselves with a greater 
degree of accuracy than animals which have not 
been bred pure. 

1. Atavism. — It sometimes happens that ani- 
mals are born with one or more characteristics 
which were not possessed by their parents or 
grandparents, but which were possessed by 
their ancestors many generations prior to their 
existence. This inborn tendency of animals to 
revert to their original type is called atavism, or 
reversion. 

2. Ordinary Variation, for the most part, is 
caused by some of the many factors of environ- 
ment. Among these factors are food, climate, 
soil, exercise and general management. Food 
is one of the most important among them. 
Ample food supply is necessary to the maximum 
growth of animals, yet overfeeding leads to 
sterility and lack of vitality in offspring. A 
striking example of the effect of nutrition upon 



FARM ANIMALS. 397 

animals is the Shetland pony, a very miniature 
horse in his original home, but gradually in- 
creasing in size when taken to a country of 
liberal food supply. As an illustration of the 
effect of climate on animals, one may observe 
the Galloway cattle of western Scotland. They 
have developed a remarkably heavy coat of hair 
because of the cold and stormy weather to 
which they have been subjected. 

Domesticated cattle receive their food with 
very little exertion other than that of eating, 
while the buffalo of the Western ranofe has been 
forced to cover considerable territory to find 
sufficient food. This continuous exercise, along 
with the severe weather endured, has brought 
about the lack of thick fleshing quality and the 
extraordinary constitution of the latter animals. 

3. The causes of Spontaneous or Extraordi- 
nary Variation are not well understood. It is 
known, however, that this type of variation is 
transmitted only very irregularly. Selection 
may be divided into two classes ; namel}', natural 
selection and artificial selection, yet the latter 
has certain limits put upon it by the former. 

V. Selection. 

By Natural Selection is meant the repro- 
ducing of animals most capable of self-protec- 
tion, of subsisting and again reproducing under 
existinof conditions. It is what has been called 



398 AGRICULTURE. 

the natural law of the "survival of the fittest." 
Among cattle those animals capable not only of 
protecting themselves in battle, but of destroy- 
ing the enemy, which might be weaker animals 
of their kind or of a different kind, were the 
survivors and remained to reproduce them- 
selves. 

Those individuals not able to withstand the 
hardships of a severe climate either starved, 
froze or were killed by their stronger brothers, 
who fought with them to obtain the available 
food. The buffalo, with heavy head, neck, 
strong fore-quarters and muscular but light 
hind-quarters, has this conformation ; because it 
permits of greater strength and agility, he is 
able to destroy his enemy and to move about 
to obtain food. 

Artificial Selection is the mating of animals 
controlled and directed by men. By careful 
study great breeders have developed our 
modern breeds of live stock. They have 
created types which were most efficient in 
particular lines of production and, in fact, have 
changed the form and function of many of our 
domestic animals. 

VI. Primary Functions of Animals. 

It will thus be seen that the laws of nature 
are at the very basis of all life. The first 
function of animals is self-preservation. For 



FARM ANIMALS. 399 

preservation, the ability to gather food and to 
protect themselves against other animals and 
the climate, is necessary. The second function 
of animal life is that of reproduction, which is 
dependent upon general strength and vigor. 
Animals in their natural state have developed 
temperament, conformation and qualities that 
best fit them for the performance of these life 
functions. 

But under domestication oreat chanj^es have 
been wrought. Here to only a limited extent 
may we say that animals exert themselves for 
self-preservation. Their food, shelter and pro- 
tection from other animals is supplied by man. 
In domestic animals the process of reproduction 
is largely directed by man, consequently they 
have been relieved to some extent of the 
primary functions of their existence. 

VII. Changes Wrought by Man. 

Man, however, expects remuneration for his 
labor and his pains and seeks to obtain it in one 
form or another. He not only lessens the 
responsibility of domestic animals of their own 
preservation and reproduction, but seeks by 
proper nutrition, care and selection to develop 
them to a high efficiency along a given line. 

As an example of this development, one may 
note the dairy-cow. Observation taught that 
some animals produced more milk than others. 
Basing the procedure upon the law of heredity, 



400 AGRICULTURE. 

these high-producing animals were allowed to 
reproduce themselves. Their ability to produce 
milk was increased by proper care and feeding. 
From each succeeding generation the best cows 
were selected and allowed to reproduce, the 
methods of feeding and caring for them were 
improved, until we have the dairy-cow of to-day, 
a veritable milk-producing machine. 

Further illustrations of man's efforts to in- 
crease the efficiency of domestic animals may 
be observed in the trotting-horse, the lard hog, 
the wool-producing sheep ; in fact, all classes of 
domestic animals. 

Thus, through these factors of food, care, 
selection and general management, prompted 
by man's necessities and his desires, the various 
classes and breeds of live stock have been 
developed. They have, however, been de- 
veloped under vastly different conditions and in 
widely separated locations. The development 
of various classes in their respective locations 
has been due to environment and the demands 
of the people. The beef-cattle business on the 
open range developed there because of the vast 
amount of cheap and government lands which 
might be pastured. The scarcity of help and 
markets, and the vast amount of land and cattle 
which must be under the supervision of one 
man, forbade the pursuit of any but an exten- 
sive business. Quite opposite are the conditions 



FARM ANIMALS. 401 

surrounding- our large cities. The vast popula- 
tion creates a demand for milk. The high 
price of land prohibits the owning of large 
tracts by individuals, and the dairy business is 
capable of enormous profit per acre. Hence 
we see to-day the districts within reach of our 
cities attentive to that branch of agriculture. 
To make the dairy business profitable, high- 
class dairy-cattle are necessary. 

The draft-horse in the Northern United States 
is the result of a demand for animals to do 
heavy work in the timber, on the streets of the 
cities, and in the large fields. The heavy soil 
and bad roads in Virginia and Kentucky brought 
about the development of the American saddle- 
horse. Many other instances of similar char- 
acter mio^ht be cited. 

But without proper care all these improved 
classes of animals tend to revert to their natural 
conditions, under which they can protect and re- 
produce themselves with the greatest certainty. 
It is this retrogression that man guards against 
by selection, care and management of his live 
stock. 

VIII. Relation of Form and Function. 

It has been observed that animals possessing 
great efficiency in some one direction have cer- 
tain characteristics in common. This is true 
whether they have been developed independ- 
ently or in close touch with each other. As 



402 AGRICULTURE. 

an example of this we have the draft-horse in 
England, and the draft-horse in Europe, de- 
veloped to a great extent independent of each 
other, yet possessing many characteristics in 
common. Some of those characteristics com- 
mon to both are weight, temperament, size of 
bone and general conformation. 

These coincident cases found in all classes of 
live stock have given rise to ideas regarding the 
"relation of form and function." To just what 
extent form and function are related is difficult 
to discern. Factors such as temperament and 
invisible characteristics have a great effect in 
determining the efficiency of animals. But that 
animal form and temperament are an index to 
their function and efficiency, within limits, can 
not be doubted. Examples of this may be ob- 
served in all classes of live stock with which we 
are concerned. From the following paragraphs 
the relation of the various forms and tempera- 
ments in the different classes of live stock to 
their function and efficiency will be seen. 

There are certain terms by which we refer to 
characteristics which are common to all animals; 
namely, quality, conformation, constitution, 
temperament, capacity and early maturity, and 
sex character. 

I. Quality is an indefinable characteristic 
which shows strength and ability for perform- 
ance without coarseness, and is indicated in 



FARM ANIMALS. 403 

animals by symmetrical development, clean-cut 
features, strong, closely knit bone, well-defined 
joints, pliable elastic skin of medium thickness 
and fine hair, all of which go to make up an ap- 
pearance of general refinement. 

2. Confoi'niation refers to the skeletal and 
muscular structure and development of animals. 

3. Constitution refers to the physical powers 
of animals, their ability to withstand hardship 
and disease. It also refers to their ability to 
remain healthy and produce well on heavy 
rations. It is indicated by a broad, deep chest, 
a well-proportioned head, and a clean-cut 
muzzle of medium size. A sleek coat of hair, 
bright eyes, and alert temperament indicate 
thrift and general good health. 

4. Temperament is the characteristic of ani- 
mals indicating nervous control and ability and 
disposition to do work. It is indicated by clear 
eye, graceful carriage, style and vigor in action. 
Terms commonly applied to temperament are 
lymphatic, nervous, sanguine and bilious. 

5. Capacity is ability of animals to utilize 
food for the production of milk, meat, wool, 
speed or strength, as the case may be. It is 
indicated by good appetite, depth and width of 
barrel (well-developed digestive apparatus), and 
disposition to utilize food. 

6. Early Maturity is a term applied to the 



404 AGRICULTURE. 

tendency of animals at the present time to 
reach mature form and begin their life's work at 
an early age. 

7. Sex Character has reference to the femi- 
nine features and the quiet disposition of 
females ; the strength, aggressiveness and mas- 
culinity of male animals. Animals which are 
clearly lacking in sex character do not usually 
prove valuable in a herd of live stock kept for 
breeding purposes. 

From the followincr discussion will be seen 
the various classes of live stock, the division of 
these classes into certain rather well-defined 
types and a subdivision of these types into 
breeds. The descriptions are those of the most 
efficient animals which are recognized by au- 
thorities on the various classes of stock. 

^.—HORSES 

are classified according to their uses to a great 
extent. 

Light Horses are those used for light driving, 
road work and riding. 

Coach-Horses are used for drawing fashion- 
able turnouts and carrying fine harness. They 
are also used as general-purpose horses. 

Draft-Horses are used to perform heavy 
work of any kind when strength and weight 
are required. 



FARM ANIMALS. 



405 



I. Light Horses 

weigh from 900 to 1,200 pounds ; stand from 15 
to 16 hands high, the larger ones being pre- 




FIG. 151. — " ARIIST MONTROSE." 
Sweepstake Saddle Stallion, at World's Fair, Chicago, 111., Sept. 6, 1893. 
Ridden by JefT Bridgford. 

ferred. They are somewhat angular in con- 
formation, with muscles of extreme length 
rather than thickness. Symmetrical develop- 
ment throughout is essential. 



The head should 



40() AGRICULTURE. 

be of medium size, carried well up, with a grace- 
ful neck of medium length set on long sloping 
shoulders. A short, strong back with long 
rump and tail set high are desirable. The legs 
should be set squarely under the body. The 
skin and hair should be fine, the bones and 
joints of good size and well defined, giving a 
general appearance of quality and good breed- 
ing. Constitution and lung capacity are indi- 
cated by nostrils of medium size, by a well- 
defined windpipe and a deep chest of medium 
width. A temperament showing spirit and 
vigor yet tractability is desirable. Without this 
spirit, the high and vigorous action so essential 
to a light horse is impossible. Both at the walk 
and at the trot the gait should be regular, 
straight and springy. These horses are re- 
markable for their stamina and endurance. 

BRF.EDS OF THIS CLASS. 

1. Arabians, which are a very old breed; 
native of western Asia and Africa. They are 
particularly characterized by their intelligence 
and endurance, and have had marked influence 
on the horses of to-day through the English 
Thoroughbred. 

2. TJioroughb7'eds, which had their origin in 
England and have long been used as race 
(running) horses. They have been of great 
value in improving the quality and stamina of 



FARM ANIMALS. 407 

some of the more modern breeds. In color 
they are usually dark. 

3. Ainerican Trotters, which are of American 
origin and are represented by a preponderance 
of blood in the native light horses of America. 
They are usually dark in color, but vary greatly 
in type. Quality and stamina are outstanding 
attributes, since they are descended from the 
Thoroug-hbred. 

4. Morgans, a branch of the American Trot- 
ters. 

5. American Saddle-Horses, which are found 
most numerous in Kentucky, Missouri and 
Tennessee. This breed possesses extreme 
style and quality and shows five gaits ; namely, 
walk, trot, canter, rack, running walk or fox 
trot or slow pace. The solid dark colors are 
preferred in this breed. 

II. Coach-Horses 

are larger than those of the former class. 
They range in weight from i , 1 50 to i ,450 pounds, 
and in height from 15.2 to 16 hands, the average 
weight being about 1,250 pounds, and height 
15,3 hands. They are similar to Light Horses 
in skeletal structure, but are very smooth in 
conformation, showing thicker muscles and 
more symmetrical body curves. Their use is to 
draw fine carriages and carry fine harness, 
consequently style, action and quality are 
essential. Extreme higrh action at knee and 



408 



AGRICULTURE. 



hock, with rather a short but straight and 
elastic stride, is desirable. Speed is a secondary 
consideration. The head and tail should be 
carried high and every action should be that of 



>Jfi^ 




FIG. 152. — HACKNEY STALLION "SIR HUMPHREY" (98S9), 956. 

OwnedbyPabst Stock Farm, Oconomowoc, Wis. Winnerof ist Prize Hackney 

Stallion and Championship, and ist Prize for Stallion of any breed for 

getting harness horses — at the International Show, I<ondon, Eng., 1907. 

an aristocrat. The skin, hair and bone should 
be of fine texture, showing ample quality. 
The legs, joints and feet should be strong, well 
placed and free from any unsoundness or 
blemish. Vigor and high spirit should be in 



FARM ANIMALS. 409 

evidence, but viciousness is not tolerable. This 
class of horses are used for short drives about 
cities where style and beauty are more sought 
than endurance ; hence this characteristic is not 
as marked as in the ligfhter horses. The solid 
darker colors are preferable. 

This class of horses is sometimes called 
heavy harness horses because of the amount of 
harness which they are forced to carry. They 
are also said to come nearer answering" the dual- 
purpose idea than any other type of horse. 

BREEDS OF THIS CLASS. 

1. Hackneys, a breed native of England and 
used in the early part of the nineteenth century 
for hauling heavy stage-coaches in that country. 
When railroads became common this work 
ceased to exist and the Hackney was developed 
toward the Coach-Horse standard. This breed 
to-day is the height of perfection as heavy har- 
ness-horses. 

2. Fi'-ench Coach-Horses, as the name indi- 
cates, are native of France. They are commonly 
termed " demi-sang " in their own country, 
which means "half-blood," and orio-inated from 
the fact that they contain much English Thor- 
ouorhbred blood as well as the blood of native 
French stock. They are very satisfactory as 
coach-horses. 

3. Germa7i CoacJi-Horses, natives of Ger- 



410 AGRICULTURE. 

many, and larger than either of the two breeds 
mentioned above. They are particularly known 
for their size, but are frequently lacking in finish 
and action. 

4. Cleveland Bays, natives of England and 
much less popular now than in the middle of 
the nineteenth century. 

5. American Coacli-Horses, a breed now in 
the formative stage in America. They are be- 
ing evolved from the most acceptable type of 
American Trotters. 

III. Draft-Horses 

should weigh from 1,600 to 2,200 pounds, and 
stand from 15.3 to 16.3 hands high. Heavy 
weight in draft-horses is much sought after, but 
quality and symmetry are not sacrificed for it 
to any great extent. The conformation of the 
draft-horse should be broad and deep in body, 
low and heavily muscled throughout. He should 
have long sloping shoulders with short, broad 
and thickly muscled back and loin. The rump 
should be of medium length and well muscled, 
with thighs and quarters deep and strong. A 
good depth of barrel indicates good feeding 
capacity. Constitution and lung capacity should 
be evidenced by deep, broad and full chest. 
The bone and joints of the legs should be of 
good size and show quality. The feet should 
be large, symmetrical and of firm texture. 



FARM ANIMALS. 



411 



Quality should be evident to produce perfection. 
The work of the draft-horse is done in most part 
at the walk, and this gait should be straight, 




FIG. 153. — PKRCHERON STALLION " PINK," 24,756 (47, 513). 

Owned by Dunham & Fletcher, Wayne, 111. Twice Champion at the Inter- 
national I,ive Stock Show. 



springy, well balanced and rapid. At the trot 
the same features are desirable. An enero-etic, 
yet docile disposition is essential. Great weight 
and strength, coupled with quality, action and 
symmetry, constitute perfection in this class. 



412 AGRICULTURE. 

BREEDS OF DRAFT-HORSES. 

1. PcrcJicrons, a breed native of the district 
of La Perche, in France. These horses are 
more numerous in America than other draft 
breeds. They are not as large as some breeds, 
but possess endurance and wearing abilicy. 
They are usually gray or black in color, with 
very little "feather." ^ 

2. Clydesdales, native of Scotland and very 
popular in Northern United States and Canada. 
They are of average size for draft-horses and 
have particularly good action. Bay, black or 
chestnut with white markings are the usual 
colors. They possess some feather. 

3. English Shires, native of England and 
popular because of their great weight. They 
are usually dark in color with some white mark- 
ings. They possess considerable feather. 

4. Belgians are a breed of horses native of 
Belgium. These horses attain great weight and 
are good feeders. They are usually bay, brown, 
chestnut or roan in color, and possess very little 
feather. 

5. Siiffolk Punch-Horses are natives of 
England. They are of good size and possess 
very little feather. Their color is always 
chestnut. 



* A growth of hair springing from the tendon back of the can- 
non bones. 



FARM ANIMALS. 413 

CATTLE. 

These are divided into three classes ; namely, 
beef cattle, dairy cattle and dual-purpose cattle. 

Beef-Cattle are used for the production of 
meat almost entirely. 

Dairy-Cattle are kept for the milk which they 
are capable of producing. 

Dual-Purpose Cattle are used where both 
beef and milk are desired, but neither as a 
special product. To this class belongs the 
great majority of cows in America. 

I. Beef-Cattle 

ordinarily attain greater weight than those of 
any other class, ranging in weight from 1,400 to 
2,500 pounds, varying according to breed and 
sex. They should be broad, deep and of 
medium length, short-legged and compact. The 
top line (shoulders to tail-head) and under line 
(brisket to twist) should be as nearly straight as 
possible. The hair, skin, and bone should be 
of good texture to show quality. A mellow, 
elastic skin of medium thickness, underlaid by 
firm, smooth and thick flesh, is termed good 
"handling quality." The shoulders, ribs, back, 
loin, rump and hind-quarters should all be 
covered with smooth, firm and thick flesh. 
Constitution is indicated by deep broad chest, 
large muzzle, clear bright eye and general 
thrifty appearance. A mild and contented 



414 



AGRICULTURE. 



disposition is desirable, but vicious and lazy 
animals are intolerable. A deep broad barrel 
is essential as an indication of feeding capacity. 
Enough milk to raise a calf is necessary in this 
class of cattle. Early maturity is a much 



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FIG. 154. — PURE-BRED ABERDEEN ANGUS STEER "ANDY." 

Owned by Minnesota Agricultural College. Three years a winner at the 
International Live Stock Show. 

sought characteristic in modern beef-cattle. It 
is indicated by the compact form and the tend- 
ency to fatten at an early age. 



BREEDS OF BEEF-CATTLE. 

I. SJiortJiorns, a breeci which had its origin in 
northeast England, but owing to its great range 
of adaptability has become very widely scattered 



FARM ANIMALS. 415 

and is particularly numerous in the United 
States, Canada, Australia and South America. 
They are one of the largest beef breeds. As 
the name indicates, they have short horns, flesh- 
colored muzzles and may be red, red and white, 
white, or roan in color. 

2. Herefords are natives of Herefordshire, 
England. They have disseminated widely and, 
owing to their hardiness, have been used on the 
ranges in this and other countries in great num- 
bers. They have rather large horns, flesh-colored 
muzzles, and have for a color some shade of red 
with white faces or heads and white along the 
underline. 

3. Aberdeen Angus Cattle are natives of north- 
east Scotland, They have been popular at a 
later date than the above-mentioned breeds, and 
owe their popularity to their excellent killing 
qualities. They are hornless, and black in color, 
with possibly a bit of white on the underside of 
the body. 

4. Galloiuay Cattle have southwestern Scot- 
land for their home. They have not been dis- 
seminated as widely as the other breeds, but are 
improving in beef quality and increasing in 
popularity. They are hornless cattle, black in 
color, with some white on the underside of the 
body. They differ from the Aberdeen Angus 
in not being as thick-fleshed, and in having a 
longer coat of hair, which is wavy. 



416 AGRICULTURE. 

5. Sussex Cattle are natives of Sussex, Eng- 
land. They are solid red in color. 

6. West Highland Cattle are natives of the 
uplands of Western Scotland. They vary in 
color from yellow to red, black and brindle. 

II. Dairy-Cattle 

have come to be veritable milk-producing 
machines. In milking condition they show little 
superfluous flesh and a very angular form. They 
should develop the triple-wedge conformation. 
By this is meant that they should widen from 
the withers to the shoulder joints, from the 
withers backward and downward, and from chest 
to abdomen, as viewed laterally. Quality is 
paramount in dairy-cattle, and is shown by fine 
skin, hair, bone and symmetrical development. 
Active, alert, energetic, yet tractable disposition, 
showing great nervous energy, with a propensity 
to utilize food for dairy production, constitutes 
dairy temperament. It is indicated by clear, in- 
telligent eyes, energetic yet perfectly controlled 
actions, and lack of superfluous flesh. Spinal 
processes which are prominent and wide-spaced 
indicate nerve force. Constitution is indicated 
by depth and width of chest, medium-size, and 
a healthy condition. The factors indicating 
capacity are medium-size muzzle, deep and broad 
barrel, and good appetite. The udder, which is 
a very important consideration, should be broad 
and capacious, attached well up behind and well 



FARM ANIMALS. 



417 



forward on the abdomen. Teats should be of 
medium size and squarely placed. The struc- 
tural formation of the udder should be glandular, 





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t|f^y<i 





FIG. 155. — "university DAIZIE." 168,596. A.J.C.C. 
Owned by University of Missouri. Record of University Daizie : 7 days, 
2897 lbs. milk; 7 days, 1499 lbs. butter fat; i year, 9,998.4 lbs. milk; 
I year, 545.S5 lbs. butter fat. Average test, 5.46 per cent, butter fat. 

without superfluous flesh. Tortuous and promi- 
nent milk veins entering- the abdomen well for- 
ward indicate a large supply of blood to the 
udder. 

BREEDS OF DAIRY-CATTLE. 

I. Je7^seys, which are natives of the island of 
that name in the English Channel, have been 
widely disseminated because of their popularity. 
As a breed they incline to be small, but show 
extreme quality. Typical Jerseys vary in color 



418 AGRICULTURE. 

from a light fawn to nearly black, possessing 
small horns and a black muzzle encircled by a 
creamy streak. This breed is famous for the 
quality rather than the quantity of milk pro- 
duced. 

2. Holstcins are natives of Holland and have 
attained a reputation for the large quantities of 
milk which they produce. The percent of 
butter fat in their milk does not average high. 
They are large cattle, black and white in color, 
with a black muzzle and medium-sized horns. 

3. Dutch Belted Cattle, natives of Holland, 
are similar to the Holsteins in many respects. 
They are black with a white belt around the 
body, hence the name. 

4. Gitemiseys have the island of Guernsey, in 
the Enoflish Channel, as their native home. 
They are somewhat larger than the Jerseys, 
produce a good quantity of milk with a percent 
of butter fat above the average. Their color is 
reddish or brownish fawn, with white markings 
over the body. The muzzle is flesh-colored 
and the skin is creamy yellow. The horns are 
medium in size. 

5. Ayr shires are natives of the county of 
Ayr, in southwestern Scotland. They are 
numerous in Canada and Northeastern United 
States. In quantity of milk produced they are 
somewhat above the average, but the percent 
of butter fat is mediocre. The approved colors 



FARM ANIMALS. 419 

Include brown or red flecked with white, or 
white flecked with red or brown. A black 
muzzle and upturning horns are typical. 

6. FrencJi-Ca7iadian Cattle are natives of the 
Province of Quebec, Canada, and solid black in 
color. 

7. Keri^y Cattle are black or red in color, 
havinof Ireland as their oriorinal home. 

III. Dual-Purpose Cattle, 

owing to their double function, are spread 
widely over America and include the great 
majority of native cows. They produce both 
milk and beef, but do not equal in either capacity 
the cattle of special-purpose type. In form 
they are a compromise, showing less flesh than 
the beef breeds, yet more than the dairy breeds. 
Quality and constitution are very essential. 
The temperament should be such that they 
carry very little superfluous flesh during the 
milking period, but upon cessation of the flow 
of milk they should fatten readily. Good 
barrel capacity and appetite are required. 
The udder in many cases lacks the capacity 
found in the dairy breeds. 

BREEDS OF DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. 

I. Red-Polled Cattle were first recognized as 
a breed in Norfolk and Suffolk, England. 
They are red in color and may have some white 
about the udder. As the name indicates they 



420 



AGRICULTURE. 



are hornless, and owe their popularity in 
England and America to their dual capacity. 

2. Devon Cattle are natives of the county of 
Devon, in southwestern England. The color 




Fig. 156. — RED-POLLED BULL " BOUNCE" 11,287. 

Bred by J. W. Martin, Gotham, Wis. Owned by H. S. Garman, Adeline, 111. 
Senior Champion at Illinois State Fair, 1906. 

of this breed is light red, although some dark 
ones are seen. A very little white on the udder 
is admissible. The muzzle is flesh-colored and 
the horns incline to be large and upturning. 

3. Brown Swiss Cattle are natives of Switzer- 
land, yet are used in America to some extent. 
They are of medium size, brown or mouse 
colored, with shades varying from dark brown 
to gray. The muzzle is dark in color, encircled 



FARM ANIMALS. 



421 



by a creamy ring". The horns are of medium 
size. 

4. Milking SJwrtho7'ns are a branch of the 
Shorthorn breed developed as milch cows. 



A' 




kk;. 157. — sourHiHjw.N wether. 

Grand Champion Wether. International I,ive Stock Show, lyoy. Shown by 
Sir George Druniniond, of Quebec. 

They do not mature as early nor carry as much 
flesh as do those of the beef strain. 

SHEEP. 
I. Mutton Form. 

The highest efficiency of mutton form is 
represented by a sheep of low, blocky form, 
broad, deep and of medium length, carrying 
width of back from shoulders to tail-head. 



422 



AGRICULTURE. 



The back should be straight and strong and the 
underline well let down. A thick covering of 
flesh should be present over the back, loin, 
rump quarters, shoulders and ribs. Quality 
should be evidenced by fine hair and wool, 




HU. I5S. KAMKOUILLET RAM. 



mellow skin and bone of firm texture. Strength 
should not be sacrificed for quality. A deep 
broad chest and a clean-cut muzzle of medium 
size, along with general vigorous and healthy 
condition, are indications of constitution. Capa- 
city to grow and fatten is indicated by well- 
sprung ribs, deep but not pendent barrel, and 



FARM ANIMALS. 423 

good appetite. With sheep, as with all other 
classes of animals, ability to fatten and mature at 
an early age is desirable. 

11. Wool- Producing Form. 

The wool-producing sheep have been developed 
with very little attention given to mutton con- 
formation. They are small and do not mature 
so early as sheep of the mutton form. They 
lack the smoothness of shoulders, the fullness 
of ribs and covering of back, rump and quarters 
which is present in the mutton sheep. They 
are comparable to the dairy-cow in carrying 
little flesh and possessing the wedge conforma- 
tion. The legs are rather short, but often 
crooked. Quality in the extreme is a much- 
admired characteristic, and is indicated by fine 
bone, skin and hair. The fine well-crimped 
fleece also shows quality. They should possess 
strong constitution, which is evidenced by deep 
and broad chest and general health and vigor 
of the animal. The weight of the fleece de- 
pends to some extent upon the nutrition of the 
animal, consequently a good barrel and appetite 
are essential as indicative of capacity. What 
may be termed the strictly wool-producing sheep 
belong to the fine-wool class, and in order to 
give more surface for growth of wool they have 
a very wrinkled skin. The wrinkles are par- 
ticularly numerous around the neck, in the 
flanks and over the rump. 



424 AGRICULTURE. 

Since sheep were first used for wool produc- 
tion, the breeds are more easily classified on 
that basis than upon a basis of mutton produc- 
tion. The kind of wool determines the class to 
which the breed belongs. There are three 
classes — known as Fine Wool, Medium Wool 
and Long Wool 

BREEDS OF FINE-WOOL CLASS. 

1. America7i Merinos are descendants of the 
Spanish Merino, a breed native of Spain. These 
sheep were early brought to America and im- 
proved. They came to be called American 
Merinos. This breed is very small, but yields 
a heavy clip of wool, rams occasionally shearing 
above thirty pounds. The wool is very fine and 
contains considerable yolk. J The rams carry 
heavy spiral horns, but the ewes are hornless. 
The face and ears are covered with white hair, 
while wool covers the body to a great degree. 

2. Delaine Merinos are a breed which origi- 
nated from the American Merinos, and differ 
from them only in that they possess more of a 
mutton conformation, are less wrinkled and 
shear somewhat less. The breed is composed 
of several sub-breeds or types, the most impor- 
tant of which are the National, Stanaard and 
Dickinson. They are somewhat larger than the 
American Merinos. 

3. Ra^nbouillets are natives of France, and 
may be called the French improvement of the 



FARM ANIMALS. 425 

old Spanish Merino. They are the best mutton 
breed in the Fine-Wool class, and have less 
wrinkles than the before-mentioned breeds, yet 
shear very well. They are larger than the 
Delaines, and have a fleece which is somewhat 
coarser; otherwise these breeds differ very little. 

BREEDS OF MEDIUM WOOL CLASS. 

1. English Down Breeds are all natives of 
some part of England. They all possess excel- 
lent mutton form with a fair fleece. The fleece 
is coarser than the fine wool, and does not con- 
tain as much yolk. None of them possesses horns, 
and the face and legs vary in color from grayish 
brown to black, according to breed. They rank 
in size as follows, the first being the largest : 
Oxfords, Hampshires, Suffolks, Shropshires and 
Southdowns. 

2. Dorsets are natives of England and par- 
ticularly famous as early lamb producers. They 
yield fair fleece and carcass. Both males and 
females possess horns, and the face and legs are 
covered with white hair. 

3. Cheviots have the border country between 
England and Scotland as an original home. 
They are very attractive sheep, being entirely 
white, but not as a rule very thick-fleshed, shear- 
ing only an average clip. 

4. Tunis Sheep are the breed often referred 
to as the fat-tailed sheep, native of northern 
Africa. 



426 AGRICULTURE. 

BREEDS OF LONG-WOOL SHEEP, 

1. Leicester s, natives of the county of Leices- 
ter, in central England, are a large breed. They 
possess good mutton form and shear a fleece of 
medium weigfht. The wool is long- but rather 
coarse. The head and legs are covered with 
soft white hair, and the wool ceases to grow just 
back of the ears, forming a sort of collar. Black 
spots in the hair on the head frequently occur. 
This breed is hornless, 

2. Lincoln has for its home the county of 
Lincoln, England. It is among the largest of 
the breeds of sheep possessing good mutton 
conformation and shearing a fleece very similar 
to the Leicester. The head and legs are covered 
with white hair, except for a tuft of wool on the 
forehead. It closely resembles the Leicester. 

3. Cotswolds are also natives of England, the 
southwestern part. They are very similar to 
the Lincolns in size, form and fleece. The 
head and legs are covered with hair, except for 
a pronounced foretop which falls in tangles over 
the face. Flecks of black are often seen on the 
head of this breed. 

HOGS 

are divided according to the kind of meat which 
they produce. 

Lard Hogs are those yielding quantities of 
meat which is excessively fat. 



FARM ANIMALS. 



427 



Bacon floods are those which when slauofhtered 
show a carcass of fat and lean well interlaid. 
They are famous for their "side of bacon." 

I. Lard Hogs 

yield a higher percentage of carcass to live 
weight than any other meat-producing animal. 




FIG. 159. — CHAMPION POLAND CHINA BARROW. 
International 1906. Bred and exhibited by Iowa Agricnltural College. 

They vary in weight at maturity from 400 to 
700 pounds. They possess short legs, a com- 
pact form with medium depth, great width and 
considerable length of body. The back is 
broad and of even width, showing a slight 
arch from shoulders to tail. The underline is 
straigfht. A thick coverinof of flesh over all 
parts of the body is essential. Fine hair, clean 
bone and features, with a symmetrical develop- 
ment throughout indicate quality. Deep, broad 



428 AGRICULTURE. 

chest and a vigorous condition are evidences of 
constitution. The temperament desired is quiet 
and contented, not vicious. Good appetite and 
barrel along with this temperament may be 
translated as ability to fatten. This ability to 
fatten at an early age is particularly desirable in 
lard hogs. 

BREEDS OF LARD HOGS. 

1. Poland CJiinas, a breed first developed In 
the Miami Valley of Ohio, but now widely dis- 
seminated over the United States. They are 
of the most extreme lard-hog type and show 
much quality. Their color is black, with white 
feet, tail and face. They have small ears, which 
break one-third of the way from the tip toward 
the head. 

2. Berkshires are natives of England and 
were imported and bred in America in consider- 
able numbers. They incline toward the bacon 
type in some cases, yet possess great quality. 
Their color is black with six white points — feet, 
tail and face. Their ears are erect and face 
decidedly dished. 

3. Diiroc Jersey Sy the outgrowth of the union 
of two breeds of red hosfs in New York and 
New Jersey. They are a very vigorous type of 
hogs and are being disseminated rapidly. The 
ideal color of this breed is cherry red, but they 
vary from light red to yery dark, with some 



FARM ANIMALS. 



429 



black hair occasionally. Their ears break one- 
third of the way from the tip to the head. 

4. Chestcrwhites, a breed native of Pennsyl- 
vania. They possess good quality and lard-hog 
conformation. The color of the hair is white, 
while the skin shows occasionally a blue spot. 




FIG. 160. — LARGE YORKSHIRE BOAR,"hOLYWELL ROYALTY II." 
Bred and exhibited by Sanders Spencer, Holywell Manor, England. 

Their ears are pendent, but should not be over- 
size. 

5. Chcshircs, a white breed having its origin 
in Jefferson County, New York. 

6. Victorias, white in color, and natives of the 
United States. 

7. Essex Swine, natives of Essex County, 
England; black in color. 

8. Small Yorkshires, an English breed, white 
in color and having a dished face. 



430 AGRICULTURE. 

II. Bacon Hogs. 

This class of hogs attains considerable weight 
at maturity, but has not the propensity to fat- 
ten which is found in the lard hogs. Smooth- 
ness and well-mingled fat and lean are desirable 
in bacon carcasses. The back is long, arched 
and smooth. The underline is straiofht. The 
shoulders, sides and hams are deep, firm and 
smoothly fleshed. The legs and head are longer 
than in the lard hogs. Fine hair, clean bone 
and sn^oothness are evidences of quality. The 
temperament is inclined to be alert, but should 
not be vicious. The ability to rapidly make a 
smooth carcass of fat and lean well interlaid is 
the desired capacity. This type of hog is par- 
ticularly rugged, has a deep, broad chest, and is 
capable of caring for itself. 

BREEDS OF BACON HOGS. 

1. Tamzuoj^ths, native of central England. 
This breed possesses great length and depth of 
side and ham. They are inclined to have rather 
long legs and head, but are very hardy. Their 
color is cherry red. The face is somewhat 
dished, and the ears are large and incline for- 
ward, but do not break. 

2. Large Yorkshires, an English breed, are 
white in color. The face is dished and the ears 
erect. In thickness of flesh they exceed the 
Tamworths, but are no smoother. 



FARM ANIMALS. 431 

3. Thill Rinds, or HainpshireSy are probably 
native of Hampshire, England. They vary in 
type, some inclining to be thick-fleshed, while 
others show a strictly bacon type. Their color 
is striking, being black with a white belt around 
the body. The face is not dished, and the ears 
incline forward, but do not break. 

POULTRY. 

Chickens are divided into three classes; 
namely, Laying Fowls, Meat Foivls and General- 
Piirposc Fowls. 

I. Laying Fowls. 

The chickens belonofinof to this class are 
alert, bright and active. They do not possess 
the ability to produce meat to any great extent. 
Their alert and active disposition is not con- 
ducive to meat production. They may be 
comparable to the dairy-cow, in that they are in 
a sense a machine of production. 

The breeds which belong to this class are : 

LegJiorns, supposed to have originally come 
from the Mediterranean Coast. There are 
several varieties; namely, the Buff, Brown, 
Black and White Leghorns. They differ very 
little except in color. 

Minorcas are of Spanish ancestry. There 
are different varieties of these, but all are egg- 
producers rather than meat fowls. 



432 AGRICULTURE. 

II. Meat Fowls. 

This class of chickens are large and quiet. 
They are the least prolific as egg-producers of 
these classes, but their propensity to fatten is 
very marked. 

The breeds which belong to this class are the 
Asiatic fowls. 

BREEDS OF MEAT FOWLS. 

1. BraJnnas, including light and dark. 

2. Langshans of several varieties. 

3. Cochins. 

III. General-Purpose Fowls. 

This type of fowl produces both meat and 
eggs in the average degree. It does not excel 
in either phase of production. It is of medium 
size, and may be called the "farmer's hen." 

BREEDS FOR GENERAL PURPOSE. 

1. Rocks, Barred, Buff or White. 

2. Wyandottes, White, Buff, Silver, Golden, 
Black and Partridge. 

3. Orpingtons. 

Score Cards for the judging of any kind of 
farm animals may be obtained from your State 
Experiment Station. Send for them and try to 
use them with the animals of some farmer. 




X ^ 

o 

a fa 

O "1 




o ^ 



433 




434 



FARM ANIMALS. 435 

6^.— REFERENCES. 

"Judging Live Stock." John A. Craig. 

"Types and Breeds of Farm Animals." Charles S. Plumb. 

" The Study of Breeds." Thomas Shaw. 

"Animal Breeding." Thomas Shaw. 

" Practical Sheep Farming." Joseph E. Wing. 

"Conformation of Beef and Dairy Cattle." Farmer's Bulletin 
No. 143. Washington. 

"Standard Varieties of Chickens." Farmer's Bulletin No. 51. 

"The Hen's Place on the Farm." Bulletin No. 150. Kansas 
Experiment Station. 

" Annual Reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry." Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

"Year Books." Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. 

" Profitable Stock Feeding." H. R. Smith. 



GENERAL REFERENCES. 



WEEDS. 



REFERENCES FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 

" Weeds in Cities and Towns." Year-book, 1898. 

" Migration of Weeds." Year-book, 1896. 

" Noxious Weeds." Bulletin 39, Wisconsin Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station. 

" Russian Thistle." Bulletin 26, Iowa Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station. 

" Twelve of Idaho's Worst Weeds." Bulletin 14, Idaho Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station. 

" Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin." Bulletin 76, Wisconsin Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station. 

" Weeds and How to Kill Them." Farmers' Bulletin 28, 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

FOREST TREES OF AMERICA. 

" The Uses of Wood." Year-book, 1896. 

" Tree Planting in Waste Places on the Farm." 

" The Relation of Forests to Farms." Year-book, 1895. 

" Tree Planting in the Western Plains." Year-book, 1895. 

" Forestry for Farms." Farmers' Bulletin 67, United States 
Department of Agriculture. 

" The Testing of Road Materials." Farmers' Bulletin 79, 
United States Department of Agriculture. 



437 



AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. 



Valuable literature upon agricultural subjects 
may be obtained free or at a comparatively low 
cost, directions for securing which are given 
below: 

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES EDEPARTMENT 
OF AGRICULTURE. 

1. Year-books. Very valuable. For general distribution. Apply 

through Congressman of your district. 

2. Farmers' Bulletins. ExcdLnt. Address Secretary of Agri- 

culture, Washington, D. C. 

3. Monthly list of publications and " Experiment Station Record." 

Address Director of Agricultural Experiment Stations, 
Washington, D. C. 

PUBLICATIONS OF STATE EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

1. Bulletins issued by one's own State Experiment Station. Ad- 

dress Director of Agricultural Experiment Station, and 
have your address put on mailing list of yourown State for 
publications. 

2. Many valuable bulletins may often be obtained from other 

State Experiment Stations by asking the Director of the 
States for them. 

3. On the following page is a list of State Experiment Stations in 

the United States, taken from "Experiment Station Record" 
of IQ02. 



438 



AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT 
STATIONS. 



Alabama — College Station: Auburn. Canebrake Station: Union- 
town. Tuskegee Station: Tuskegee. 

Alaska — Sitka. 

Arizona— Tzttson. 

Arkansas — Fayetteville. 

California — Berkeley. 

Colorado — Fort Collins. 

Connecticut — State Station: New Haven. Storrs Station: Storrs. 

Delaware — Newark. 

Florida — Lake City. 

Georgia — Experiment. 

Hawaii — Federal Station: Honolulu. Sugar Planters' Station: 
Honolulu. 

Idaho — AIosiow. 

Illinois — Urbana. 

Indiana — Lafayette. 

Iowa — Ames. 

Kansa — Manhattan. 

Kentucky — Lexington. 

Louisiana — State Station: Baton Rouge. Sugar Station: Audubon 
Park. North Louisiana Station: Calhoun. 

Maine — Orono. 

Maryland — College Park. 

Massachusetts — Amherst. 

Michigan — Agricultural College. 

Minnesota — St. Anthony Park, St. Paul. 

Mississippi — Agricultural College. 

Missouri — College Station: Columbia. Fruit Station: Mountain 
Grove. 

Montana — Bozeman. 

Nebraska — Lincoln. 

Nevada — Reno. 

New Jersey — Neiv Brunswick. 

New Hampshire — Durham. 

439 



UO AGRICULTURE. 

New Mexico — Mesilla Park. 

New York — State Station: Geneva. Cornell Station : Ithaca. 

North Dakota — Agricultural College. 

North Carolina — Raleigh. 

Ohio — Wooster. 

Oklahoma — Stillwater. 

Oregon — Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania — State College. 

Porto Rico — Rio Piedras. 

Rhode Island — Kingston. 

South Carolina — Clemson College, 

South Dakota — Brookings. 

Tennessee — Knoxville. 

Texas — College Station. 

Utah — Logan. 

Vermont — Burlington. 

Virginia — Blacksburg. 

Washington — Pullman. 

West Virginia — Morganio-m-A, 

Wisconsin — Madison. 

Wyoming — Laramie^ 



PUBLISHING HOUSES. 



Address of publishing houses whose books 
have been mentioned in the reference lists at 
the end of the various chapters. 

The number in the reference list corresponds 
to the number given to the publishing house • 

(i) D. Appleton & Co., New York. 

(2) Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 

(3) G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. 

(4) Orange Judd Co., New York. 

(5) J B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. 

(6) A. Flanagan, Publisher, Chicago. 

(7) Henryr Holt & Co., Boston. 

(8) The American Book Co., Chicago. 

(9) A. L. Burt, New York. 

(10) The Macmillan Co., New York. 

(11) The Simmons Publishing Co., Springfield, O. 



441 



GLOSSARY. 



Ab-ra'sion. The act of wearing or rubbing off. 

Ad-he'sion. The attraction between unlike or distinct particles 
of matter. 

Ad ven-ti tious. Out of the usual place. 

Al-bu mi-noids. Organic compounds containing nitrogen. 

At-a-vist-ic. The liability of any characteristic of any ancestor 
to recur in subsequent generations. 

A-tom'ic. Pertaining to atoms, the ultimate indivisible particles 
of matter. 

A-vailable food. Food which is in such a condition that the 
plant can and will use it. 

Balanced ra tion. Food consisting of such proportions of vari- 
ous elements that the least possible amount will be wasted. 

Bar-rel. That part of an animal's body containing the abdominal 
organs. 

Bris-ket. The projection of flesh and bone just anterior to and 
between the forelegs of cattle and sheep. • 

Bud'ding stick. A shoot of one season's growth. 

Cal-ca're-ous. Composed of, or containing lime. 

Cam'bi-um. The ring of thin-walled formative tissue between 
the bark and wood in which growth takes place. 

Car-bo-hy'drate. Foods containing carbon but no nitrogen; 
they also contain oxygen and hydrogen in the same pro- 
portion as they are found in water. 

Cer'ci (pi. of cer'cus). The jointed antenniform appendages of 
the posterior somites of certain insects. 

Chem'ic-al af'fin'i-ty. Attraction which acts at insensible dis- 
tances between atoms of unlike elements, forming com- 
pounds. 

Chlo'ro-phyll. Green granular matter formed by the leaves and 
green stems of plants. 

Chrys'a-lis. Quiescent state of butterflies and moths from which 
the adult insect comes forth. 

Co-he'sion. Attraction between like particles. 

Com'post. Fertilizing mixture; stable compost means barn-yard 
manure. 

Cor-rod'ing. Eating away by degrees. 

Dis-sem-i-na'tion. Scattering. 

Dor'mant. Inactive, quiescent. 
442 



GLOSSARY. 4^3 

Dis-in'te-gra'tion. Crumbling to fragments. 

E-mul'si-fy. To reduce an oily substance to a milky fluid, in 
which the fat globules are in a very finely divided state. 

En'to-mol'o-gy. The science which deals with the life history 
and description of insects. 

Er-ro'ne-ous-ly. By mistake; not rightly. 

Ex'cre-ment. That which is discharged from the animal body 
as useless. Ex-cre'ta. 

Firter=pa-per. A porous unsized paper that retains the sedi- 
ment when liquids are passed through it. 

Fun'gi-cide. A preparation which kills fungi. 

Fun'gus (pi. fun'gi). A flowerless plant lacking chlorophyll 
(green coloring-matter). 

Green ma-nur'ing. Vegetation plowed under for fertilizing pur- 
poses. 

Hu'mic. Pertaining to or derived from vegetable mold. 

Hu'mous, adj. Containing humus. 

Humus, n. Decayed vegetable or animal matter. 

Hy-dra'tion. Combining with water to form a hydrate, which is 
usually a neutral salt. Slaked lime is a hydrate. 

In-oc'u-late. To communicate bacteria germs by introducing 
matter infected by them. 

In-sec'ti-cide. A preparation to kill insects. 

La'bel. To apply a label to, to mark with a name, etc. 

Li'chen. Algse and fungi leading a life in partnership. 

Marl. A mixed earthy substance consisting of carbonate of lime, 
clay, and siliceous sand in variable proportions. 

Me'di-an. An ideal line dividing the body of an animal longi- 
tudinally and symmetrically into right and left halves. 

Mi'cro=or-gan-ism. Microscopic organism, here meaning bac- 
teria. 

Mo-lec'u-lar force. Attraction between molecules. 

Muck. Decayed vegetable matter. 

Nod'ule. Small rounded masses, knots, or prominences formed 
on roots of leguminous plants by infesting bacteria. 

Note. Used in connection with exercises and experiments, means 
observe and record your observation. 

Nox'ious. Injurious; destructive. 

Ox'i-da'tion. Combining with oxygen to form an oxide. 

Par'a-sit'ic. Living upon or in, or deriving its nourishment from 
some other living being. 



444 GLOSSARY. 

Plu'mule. The bud, or first shoot above the cotyledons, of a 
young plantlet. 

Pol'lin-a'tion. Conveying pollen from stamens to pistil. 

Pre-cip'i-tate. A substance which, having been dissolved, is 
again separated from the solution, and falls to the bottom 
of the vessel. 

Pre-da'ceous. Preying upon or devouring other insects. 

Pu-bes'cent. Covered with very fine, short hairs. 

Pu-pat-ing. Going into the pupa or inactive (usually) stage, from 
which the adult insect emerges. 

Rad'i-cle. The stem part of the embryo; the lower part, which 
forms the root-system. 

Raffia. A commercial product formed from several species of 
the genus Rapphia. A strong fiber used for tying in 
nursery work. 

Res'i-due. That which remains after a part is taken; remainder; 
dregs. 

Sci'on. A shoot of one season's growth used in bud propagation. 

Seg'ment. One of the parts into which any body naturally sep- 
arates or is divided. 

Sil'age. Green food preserved in a silo. 

Si-li'ceous. Containing silica. 

Soil'ing. The system of feeding farm animals in a barn or en- 
closure with fresh grass or green fodders — as, corn, rye, 
and oats. 

Spore. One of the minute grains in flowerless plants which per- 
forms the function of seed. 

Ster'il-ize. To make unproductive; to destroy all spores or 
germs so as to prevent the development of bacteria. 

Stock. A seedling tree used in bud propagation. 

Strat'i-fied. Divided into layers or strata. 

Trac'ta-bility, That disposition in animals which makes them 
subject to man's will; capable of being managed or con- 
trolled. 

U-ni-cel lu-lar. Consisting of but one cell. 

Vol a-til-ize. To pass off in vapor. 

Volu-ble. Twining. 

Yolk. The oily secretion in wool. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Acid in soil 96 

test for 97 

Acid measure 179 

Albumen 169 

Alfalfa 1 15, i_'o 

as a food 122 

conditions for growing . . 120 

curing 122 

Alkaline soil 98 

Alkali wash 335 

Ammonia 87. 99 

Ammonia, Sulphate of ... 88 

Ammoniacal copper carbonate . 338 

340, 34-' 

Analysis of feeding stuffs . . 136 

Animals 33 

accumulations of 35 

disintegration by 34 

characteristics of .... 403 

domestic 394 

early history 393 

improvement in ... . 394, 400 

use of 393 

Ants 34 

Apple scab 340 

Arabians 406 

Argilaceous soils. See Clay. 

Arsenate of lead 301 

Ash in milk 170 

Ashes as fertilizers . . . 91. 98 

Atavism 396 

Atmosphere 5. n 

chemical action 7 

composition 11 

movements 6 

work of 1 1, -25 

Babcock test 175 

Bacteria 112 

conditions necessary for growth 114 

cultures of 113 



PAGE 

Bacteria in milk 164 

in soil 31, 78, 98, 102 

nitrogen fixing . . 110, 117, 120 

tubercle forming 112 

Baltimore oriole 3^7 

Barnyards, Covered . loj, 103, 147 

Beavers 36 

Beech 373 

Bitter rot 339 

Blackbird 310 

Black rot 338 

Bone-black 90 

Bordeaux mixture . . . 338, 340 

nozzle 30s 

test 342 

Borers 322, 332 

round-headed apple-tree . . 332 

Boulder clay 44 

Breeding-jar 293 

Brown rot 33^ 

Budding 229 

spring 230 

Buds, Removal of 276 

Butter 190, 198 

churning 19- 

coloring 190 

composition 195 

estimating yield 196 

grain of 194. i95 

keeping quality 194 

marketing 196 

molding and wrapping . . . 197 

mottling 19s 

overrun 196 

packing 196 

salting 194 

wasliiiig 194 

worker 195 

working 195 

Butter fat 167, 181, 183 

Butterfly 297 

445 



446 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Buttermilk i8i 

Butyriii i68 

Cambium, function 2y2 

dying back J74 

active and inactive .... 278 

capacity 403 

Capillarity 55 

Carbon 79 

bisulphide 305 

dioxide 9 

Carbohydrates 118, 133 

in leguminous plants . . . 118 

Casein 169 

Castor pomace 88 

Catalpa tree J03 

Catch crops ] 59 

Caterpillar 297 

Cattle 413 

Aberdeen Angus 415 

Ayrshire 418 

beef 413 

dairy 413, 416 

Devon 420 

Galloway 397 

Guernsey 418 

Hereford . 415 

Jersey 417 

Shorthorns 414,421 

Sussex 416 

Centrifugal machine . . . 179, 187 

Chalcis flies 322 

Churning 192, 194 

Churns 191 

Clay 46, 49, 51 

Clover, as roughage . . . . 119 
as green manuring . . .119, 120 

crimson 119 

red 118 

Codling-moth 33°, 33i 

Compounding rations .... 140 

Concentrates 145 

Conformation 403 

Constitution 403 

Corn 246, 249 

score card 247 

Boone County White. . . 250, 251 

Cosmos flowers 266 

Cottonseed-meal 88 



PAGE 

Cow-pcas 123, 124 

as a food 125, 126 

yield 123 

Cows 172, 174 

breeds . . . 171, 172, 173,414 
food affecting milk . . . 164, 173 

individuality of 173 

period of lactation .... 1 73 

Cream 182 

ripening i8g 

separation 182 

temperature 192 

testing 181 

Creamer, Cooley 185 

Crossing, Limits of, and results 260 

Cross-pollination 261 

Cross-section of stem .... 273 

Crow 310 

Cuttings, Green wood .... 220 

hard wood 225 

leaf 221 

root 228 

stem 221 

Cyanide bottle 292 

Darwin 34 

Debris 299 

Denitrification 32 

Diatoms 18, 33 

Disparene 301 

Drainage 64 

Drift 22, 44 

Drives 367 

Earthworm 34, 35 

Elm 373, 374 

Emasculation 263 

Energy, Sources of ... . 3 

Environment, Changes of . . 36 

Ether extract 133 

heat value in corn .... 136 

Feeding stuffs ... . . 144 

palatability 144 

Fertility of the soil . . . 84, 104 

Fertilizers 86 

amount to be used . . . 93, 94 
commercial. Table of . . . 92 

when used 95 

from animal sources . 87, 88 



INDEX. 



447 



PAGE 

Fertilizers from mineral sources 88 

from vegetable sources . . 88 

kinds 94 

how applied 95 

time to apply 94 

Flower parts 262 

Food, Nitrogenous 13-; 

carbonaceous 132 

Forage, Green 146 

Frost 18 

creeping action of . . . 19, :2o 

Fungi 336 

Fungicides 34' 

Gardening 349 

landscape 361, 365 

geometrical 364 

natural 366, 369 

school 349 

window 359 

Geotropism 209 

Glaciers 20 

Grafting 232 

cleft 233 

crown ■:37 

piece-root 233 

stem 235 

top 235 

whip 233 

whole-root 233 

Grafting-wax 23y, 276 

Grasshopper 295 

Gravity 4, 6, 13 

Guano 36 

Gypsum 89, 99, ioj, 103 

Harrows 70 

Hawk 310 

Heading trees low 280 

Heredity in animals .... 394 

in plants 245 

Hogs 426 

Berkshire. 428 

Chesterwhite 429 

Duroc Jersey 428 

Hampshire 431 

Poland China 428 

Tamworth 430 

Yorkshire 429, 430 



PAGE 

Horses 404 

coach . . . 404,407,409,410 

draft 404, 410, 412 

light 404, 405 

saddle 407 

prehistoric 393 

Humus 33. 38, 48, 51 

Hydrogen 79 

Ice 19 

Icebergs 24 

Ice sheets 20 

Ichneumon-fly 321 

Insects 289 

biting 298 

characters of 289 

metamorphosis of ... . 290 

predaceous 317 

sucking 298 

water forms 294 

Insecticides 300 

contact 302 

poisonous 300 

Insect net 291 

Irrigation 38, 66 

Kerosene emulsion 303 

Lace-winged fly 319 

Ladybug -317 

Lakes 17 

Landslides 17 

Larvae 290 

Lawns 368 

Layering 237 

mound 238 

pot 239 

simple 238 

Lead paint 276 

Leaf mould 48 

Leguminous plants 107 

as food 116 

chemical action 115 

plants, for green manuring . 116 

mechanical action . . . . 115 

Life 27 

plant life. See Plants, 
animal life. See Animals. 

Lime 46, 96 

as an insecticide and fungicide 98 



448 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Lime effect upon soil .... 96 
effect upon plants .... 96 
for neutralizing acids ... 99 

Loam 48, 49, 50 

Meadow-lark 308 

Milk 161 

albumen 169 

ash 170 

bacteria in 164 

care 163 

casein 169 

color 171 

composition 167 

odors 163, 184 

olein 168 

Pasteurization 167 

pure and impure .... 165 

quality and quantity . . . 171 

samijling 180 

secretion of 163 

sugar 170 

temperature 166 

testing :7s 

Moisture constitutes plant food 

62,63 

conveys plant food .... 60 

dissolves plant food .... 60 

regulates temperature ... 6j 

Mosquitoes 299 

Moss-rose 265 

Mulching 70 

Nectarine 265 

Nitrate 87, 94 

Nitrification 3i> 78 

Nitrogen 31,48, 109 

available 87 

compounds of 86 

effect of 80 

exhaustion from the soil . . 109 

in plants 79 

how obtained 81 

Nutritive ratio 138 

wide and narrow .... 139 

Nymphs 290, 297 

Ocean 17 

Oleomargarine 168 

Orange flower 263 

Osmosis 61 



PAGE 

Owl 310 

O.xygen 9, 79 

Paris Green 300 

Paths 367 

Perpetuating species .... 271 

Phosphate 48, 82 

deposits of 90 

of lime 89 

Phosphorus 82 

compounds of 89 

function of 82 

m plants 82 

Pine tar 276 

Pipette 178, 182 

Planker " ^i 

Plant-lice 299, 323, 325 

Plants, chemical effects ... 30 

deposits of 33 

food of ... 1 ... . 78 
amount needed .... 94 

from water 62, 79 

mechanical effects .... 28 
protecting the soil . 28, 30, 36, 37 

repotting 224 

Plowing 67, 73 

Potash 48 

Potassium 84, 91 

compounds of 91 

Potting plants 226 

Poultry 431 

Brahmas 432 

Cochins 432 

Langshans 432 

Leghorns 431 

Minorcas 431 

Orpingtons 432 

Rocks 432 

Wyandottes 432 

Prairie dog 34 

Principles of feeding .... 131 

profit in 131 

Propagation of plants . . . 201 

from buds 219 

diagram of 220 

Protein 1 16, 132 

Pruning 271,286 

at transplanting 279 

effect of improper . . 274, 375 
fall 278 



INDEX. 



449 



PAGE 

Pruning, general principles of J/I 

hardy shrubs -85 

large limbs J 74 

root 284 

to induce fruitfulness . . . 284 

to prevent overbearing . . 285 

shade-trees 282 

spring 278 

when to prune 277 

wliy to prune 279 

Quail 315 

Quality 4i>2 

Relation between root-system 

and leaf-system .... 273 

Rivers 15 

Rolling 71 

Rose-slug 324 

Rotation of crops 153 

courses in i57 

effect upon insects . . 157,299 

effect upon soil 153 

effect upon vi'eeds .... 156 

Roughage 145 

Sand 7. 8, 46 

Scale insects 299, 319 

Scheele's green 300 

School grounds 349 

Scion 233 

Seed-bed, preparation of . . . 67 

Seedlings, peach 231 

isolation of 249 

variation of 253 

Seeds 201 

age of 206 

germination of 207 

jjreservation of 207 

purity 204 

seed coat 201 

selection of 246 

stratification 202 

testing 202 

treatment of fine seeds . . 211 

vitality 204 

Selection 245 

artificial 398 

diagram of 267 

natural 297 



PAGE 

Sheep 421 

Cheviot 425 

Cotswold 426 

Dorset 425 

English Down 425 

Leicester 426 

Lincoln 426 

Merino 424 

Kambouillet 424 

Tunis 425 

Shrubs 349, 375, 378 

Silage 147 

Skim-milk 181 

Snowslides 20 

Soiling 146 

crops 159 

Soils, acidity 97 

alkaline 98 

alluvial 44 

chemical analysis .... 85 

classification and properties . 42 

clayey 46, 49 

collecting . 47 

fertility 84 

foothold for plants .... ^^ 

furnishes plant-food ... jy 

inoculation of iio 

moisture and preparation of . 57 

physical properties .... 49 

pores of 54 

sandy 46, 49 

sedentary 43 

storehouse for water ... "n 

subsoil 43 

temperature of 50 

transported 44 

Soy-bean 112, 125, 126 

Stable compost 99 

Starch in wood 84 

Stock 2},}, 

Sparrow 310,312,315 

Spider 307 

Sugar maple 373 

Sycamore 373 

Temperament 403 

Temperature, curve .... 50 

regulated by soil .... 78 

regulated by rains .... 62 

Tent-caterpillar, American . . 324 



450 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Tent-caterpillar, forest . . . 3j8 

Test bottles 177, 179 

Thoroughbreds 405 

Till 44 

Tillage, surface 70 

Timber, trees grown for . j8i, j8j 

Toad 307 

Tobacco 304 

dust 304 

Tobacco, tea 304 

smudge 304 

Tomato worm 299 

Trees 351, 370, ^yz 

Trotters 407 

Underground streams .... 16 

Variation 212, 245 

bud 265 

causes of 214, 397 

fixation of 216 

induced by cross fertiliza'.ion 259 

induced by light 256 

induced by pruning .... 257 
of animals 395 

Varieties, new 250 



PAGE 

\'egetation experiments ... 85 
Vetch 110 

inoculation of . . . 1 11, 112 

Water 12, 25 

assorting power 16 

capillary 59 

capillary rise of ... . 53, 71 
chemical action of ... . 12 
deposition by . . . 14, 15, 16, 18 
disintegrating power . . 13, 25 

frozen 18 

ground 59 

hygroscopic 60 

mechanical action of . . . 13 
percolation of ... 52, 65, 70 
transporting power of . . . 14 

Waves 17 

Weeds 312 

seed 314 

Winds 6 

work of 6, 7 

Wolff-Lehmann I'"eeding Stand- 
ards 136 

Wounds, treatment of ... 276 

Wren 308 



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Associate Editors in the Office of Experiment Stations, United States 
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